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EMBODYING THE IKSTRXTCTION GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR AT 

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E.V. DeGRAFF.A. M. 



Second Edition. Carefully Reviaed. 



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Copyright, E. V. DeGraff, 1877. 



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TO THE 

TEACHEKS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 

TO WHOM 

HAVE BEEN ENTRUSTED THE TEACHING 

AND 

THE TRAINING OF THE RISING GENERATION, 

THIS VOLUME, 

WRITTEN FOR THEIR AID AND ENCOURAGE. 

MENT, 

IS MOST BESrECTFULLY DEDICATED 

BY THEIR FRIEND, 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



Maniials. both general and special, have been pub- 
lished, relating to the teacher's work. Information 
scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually 
inaccessible to those by whom it is most needed ; 
and consequently, the most important results of study 
and research are often of no avail to those whose 
special office it is to apply them to a practical pur- 
pose. Hence the need of works that present in a 
condensed form, and so as to be easily referred to, 
the important facts of pedagogy. 

Accordingly, the first announcement of this work 
was greeted with the most earnest expressions of ap- 
probation and welcome. The design was to prepare 
a work which, while comprehensive and complete 
within its scope, would like, the dictionary, be upon 
every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever occa- 
sion might require, thus afibrding information and 
practical aid at every exigency of his daily labors. 

The School Room Ouide^ it must be born in mind, 
is but a pioneer, opening out, it is hoped, a wide 
path for future literary and professional effort in the 
same direction. The author is by no means so pre- 
sumptuous as to suppose that he has produced a 
work without fault or blemish ; it will doubtless share 
the fate of all books of its class, the scrutinizing crit 



iv PREFACE. 



icism of the public. In future editions of the work, 
pains will be taken to correct what is faulty and to 
improve what is imperfect ; any assistance which 
those who appreciate the aim of the work may be 
able to render that end, will be gratefully acknowl- 
edged. 

The views contained in this Manual are the result 
of a prolonged experience in the school-room and in 
teachers' institutes. 

The labor expended in the preparation of the 
volume was very great. It has formed a daily sub- 
ject of thought for the past five years. Many of the 
lessons have been revised three or four times. 

This is hardly the place to confess how often the 
task was about to be abandoned from the dispropor- 
tion felt to exist between its magnitude and the limited 
powers that could be summoned to execute it ; but it 
was as often resumed, and is now completed — com- 
pleted, but not PERFECTED. 

This work has been prepared with three objects in 
view : first completeness, that nothing be wanting to 
assist the teacher or student; second, correctness, that 
nothing erroneous be taught ; and, third, brevity, 
that its readers might not be obliged to read volumes 
in order to learn hoie to teach the difierent subjects. 

To carry out the plan of this book, much reading, 
as well as much thinking, has been done ; to tell 
where and by whom this fact or that method was ob- 
tained is an impossibility. 

Wishing to do justice to everybody, no claim that 
may be fairly made to any idea, fact, or method in it 



AN AID: NOT A SUBSTITUTE. « 

will be disputed ; but it is hoped that something may 
be left even when all claims are satisfied. Nothing, 
however has been taken from others and used with- 
out dose investigation. All facts, methods and prin- 
ciples found in the book, come whence they may, 
have been fused into a cormnon whole. The whole — 
this collecting and uniting of the scattered fragments 
of thought concerning education — this system, — is 
what the author asks credit for, if credit be deemed 
his due. 

In every subject the author has given : first, an in- 
troduction, followed by several lessons upon the 
same subjects ; second, explicit directions.; third, 
cautions to be observed ; and fourth, results to be 
attained. 

It is hoped that in this volume a systematic treatise 
for the special guidance of the teacher may be found 
upon all subjects taught in our public schools. 

As a preparation for the successful study and prac- 
tice of this book, it is necessary to understand the 
several branches of knowledge taught. 

After the students or teachers become familiar with 
the subjects, they should study the directions, — or, 
as they are termed — methods of teaching. 

By study, much may be accomplished with it; 
without study, little. 

The wise teacher will remember that the methods 
presented in this work are offered as aids to honest 
effort, not as substitutes for personal exertion. 

The teacher who uses them as mere machines for 
lessening the labor of thinking, will fail. No one can 



vi PREFKCE. 

succeed by blind imitation. All successful teachers 
must work out their own salvation in reaching a 
rational solution of the problems presented by their 
profession. 

These methods are the fruits of practical experience 
and definite principles of action. The teacher should 
study, digest and appropriate the underlying princi- 
ples, before attempting to apply the forms. 

There can be no efficient substitute for the individ- 
uality ot the teacher. 

The power of a formal method lies in its sugges- 
tiveness ; it gives direction to the thoughts of the 
honest inquirer and pilots him toward the goal of suc- 
cess: but he must attain it by his own persevering 
effort. 

Teaching is an art as well as a science; it requires 
apprenticeship in doing things as well as in reasoning 
out relations. 

The condition of success in every calling is per- 
sonal strength ; the armor of Achilles would be only 
a burdensome obstruction to a stripling. Hobby 
riding gives a delusive appearance of progress, but 
the age runs away from the rider. 

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the 
educational works of the various publishing houses 
of New York : among them, Scribner, Armstrong & 
Co.; Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co. ; A. S. Barnes 
& Co ; Harper & Brothers ; Clark & Maynard ; Tain- 
tor Brothers, Merrill & Co. ; and D. Appletbn & Co. 

To all who have aided in the work, the thanks ol 
the author are due ; it could not have possessed the 



FBEFAGE TO SECOND EDITION, vii 

value which may, with considerable confidence, be 
attributed to it, had it not been for cordial support ; 
and certainly could not have earned the approval 
Which it may justly be expected to receive. The 
author also takes occassion to express his obligations 
to the many friends who have afforded valuable aid 
in giving important advice, or in affording needed in- 
formation. Among the number are Dr. Joseph A] den, 
president of the State Normal School at Albany ; 
Miss Minnie Sherwood, principal of public school. 
Auburn, N. Y. ; John Kennedy, Buffalo, N. Y. ; also 
to associate instructors, school commissioners and 
superintendents of public schools. 

To all of these the author would extend his grate- 
ful acknowledgment for encouragement and valua- 
ble suggestions. 

Sincerely hoping that this Manual will contribute 
to the cause of education, it is most respectfully sub- 
mitted to the public. 

Albajstt, November 1, 1877. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

The first edition of this work having been entirely 

sold before it was received from the binder, I am 

compelled to make this revision more hasty than I 

could have desired. The subjects have been entirely 

rearranged and indexed by head-lines, however, and 

many corrections have been made. I shall be glad 

of suggestions for future revision. 

E. V. DeGRAFF. 
Albany, December 15, 1877. 



" Words are things ; and a small drop of ink, falling like 
dew upon a thought, produces that which makes thousands, 
perhaps millions, think." — Byron. 

*'The fool hath planted his memory with an army of 
words." — Shdkspeare. 

"In the commerce of speech use only coin of gold and 
silver. ... Be profound with clear terms, and not with 
obscure terms." — Jaubert. 

" It is highly important, that whatever we learn or know, 
we should know correctlt ; for unless our knowledge 
be correct, we lose half its value and usefulness."— Con- 
versaiions on Botany 



READING. 



methods Used in Teaching Children to Read. 

Methods, 
1. The Word. Method. 
3. The Object Method. 

3. The Phonic Method. 

4. The Phonetic Method. 

5. The Phonotypic Method. 

6. The Word-Building Method. 

7. The Look-and-say Method. 

8. The Sentence Method. 

9. The Drawing Method. 

10. The A, b, c, or Alphabetic Method. 

That teachers may distinguish good methods from 
poor ones, descriptions will be given of some of the 
plans employed for the first lessons in reading. 

Some are old, long, unnatural and tedious, afford- 
ing little else than monotony to stimulate the child's 
desire to learn. Others may be shorter, but none the 
less unnatural and arbitrary. 

Some are unphilosophical, and leave no cause for 
surprise that so many children flounder at the very 
threshold of knowledge, the very place that should 
be made most attractive. The Word Method will 
receive close attention, and it is hoped that those 
teachers who are not familiar with it will study it 
and use it. ^ 



10 REABINa. 



How fo Teach Pupils to Read by the Word 
Method. 

I. Directons. 

1. Call the attention of the children to some ob- 
ject. 

2. Ask questions about the object. 

3. Talk to the children about the object. 

4. Ask the children to give the name of the object. 

5. Show a picture of the object. 

6. Make a drawing on the board of the object. 

7. Print and write the word on the board. 

8. Let the pupils copy the word on their slates. 

9. Group words into phrases. 

10. Group words into sentences 

11. After the pupils learn one sentence, use it in 
making other sentences. 

12. Select words that are the names of familiar ob« 
jects, 

IL Cautions. 

1. Present only two or three new words for each 
lesson. 

2. Teach the children to recognize words as signs 
of ideas. 

3. At first give no attention to the elements of which 
words are composed ; as the elementary sounds, and 
letters. 

4. Attempt no spelling of any of the words. 

III. Results. 

1. Knowledge. 

2. Naturalness of expression. 

3. Fluency. 



THE WORD METHOD. 11 

Remarks. — In the earliest stages of the course, 
teaching precedes learning ; the child's steps are 
guided and upheld by the teacher ; his way is made 
clear for him, and his difficulties are anticipated. It 
is essential that the child shall have a liking to the 
work in which he is engaged. It is the spirit of the 
teacher rather than his methods that ensures success 
in teaching little ones to read. 

In the word method, we begin by teaching words, 
leading the children to recognize them as wholes. 
This method is now used extensively ; it was the 
method used by the race in developing the language. 
Nature is the guide of both parents and children. 
There is a fitness in her means that secures, in the 
most simple way, the most desirable ends. We 
have become artificial, mechanical in teaching ; we 
need to retrace our steps and imitate nature's process. 
Follow Nature's Plan. 

Nature begins with objects — the idea first, its signs 
second, and the ability to represent the idea of its 
signs third — the natural order of learning language, 
and the natural order of using it, are made to corres- 
pond. The word soon becomes familiar to the child. 
It is the object of thought. 

The word method begins with words, and not let- 
ters. To teach the word " hat " it does not teach first 
the letters li, «, t, and say " hat ; ' but it takes the word 
and calls it " M?,*' without any reference to the fact 
that the printed word is made up of letters. 
The Thing Before the Sign. 

The thing before the sign is the rule in teaching. 



12 HEADING. 



Words that are not signs of things can be illustrated 
by examples: for instance, white, by showing the 
color; runs, by showing the act; on, by showing the 
•position^ etc. By this method it will take no more 
time to teach the word, its elementary sounds, letters 
and spelling, than the letters alone by the old way of 
teaching the letters first. 

Let the teacher aim to get the children to talk freely. 
If possible, present a real object to the class ; a pic- 
ture, or a drawing. Ask questions to draw out what 
the children know of the object. You now have ex- 
cited an interest ; show the class the word ; print or 
write the word under the drawing ; tell the children 
that the word is a picture of the real object ; require 
the children to pronounce it several times ; print the 
word in several places on the board; and require the 
children to pronounce it in concert. 

In like manner teach quality words, for example 
"red ;" show an object that is red, and print on 
the board the words, " a red cap,*' and request pupils 
to read the phrase. That the plan of teaching chil- 
dren to read by the word method may be more clearly 
understood and readily applied, the following direc- 
tions are given : 

How to Teach the Word Method. 

Let the*teacher begin by a familiar conversation 
with the children about some object. It is of little 
importance what words are taught first, if the words 
are short ones and familiar to the children by use in 
conversation, and the object which the words repre- 



WOBBS THE OBJECTS OB TEOUGET. 13 

sent and the pictures can be readily shown. The ob- 
ject of the talk and questions should be to put the 
child in conscious possession of a knowledge of the 
thing, or of what the word represents. 

When the child has this knowledge, and not before, 
the teacher may show him the sign, i. e., the word. 

As soon as the word is presented the child should 
print it on his slate. A little practice will enable the 
child to print it readily. The printing will fix the 
word in the mind. 

In very many of the best schools in our cities the 
children are taught at first to write the word ; not 
permitted to print it for the reason, that in after life 
we use the script, not the printed forms. 

If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, daily 
lessons in writing, in^a very short time they will 
be able to copy the sentence fxom the board on the 
slates. 

This is a very important exercise, not only on ac- 
count of the practice in writing which it afibrds, buf 
for giving the children something attractive and use 
ful to do, and preventing mischievous habits, greatly 
lightening the burdens of disciplining them. The 
teacher should take some sharp instrument and rule 
one side of the slate, and the children should be en- 
couraged to do the work neatly and correctly. 
Letters and Sounds. 

The child knows nothing of vowels, consonants 
and articulation ; nothing about letters, when he looks 
upon the printed page. 
The word, the word ! This is the object of thought. 



14 READING. 



The printed word is the object presented to the mind 

of the child. It is presented through the eye. It is 

known by its form ; the child learns to recognize the 

words by their forms, as it learns to recognize other 

objects. The names of the letters are no guides to 

the correct pronounciation of words, and they can be 

of no possible service to the children in learning to 

read. 

After the children have made considerable progress 

in reading words, the teacher may call their attention 

to the elementary sounds of which the words are 

composed. 

Combined Method. 

Some teachers combine the Word and Phonic 
Methods, and after the word is learned by sight, 
teach the elementary sounds. This is not necessary 
to this plan of teaching reading, and if the teacher 
thinks best, may be omitted. 

Children have been taught to read in a very few 
weeks by this plan, and we would encourage prim- 
ary teachers to tr}-- it. It is very useful in cultivating 
distinctness in articulation, and in aiding the chil- 
dren to acquire new words. 

The Names ol Letters. 

When the pupils have been made familiar with the 
words that have been taught by sight, so as to readily 
pronounce them, and give their elementary sounds, 
the teachers may call the aiiention of ihe children to 
the names of their letters; but as a rule the children 
will learn the names of the letters soon enough, with- 
out any help from the teacher. 



TEE OBJECT METHOD. 15 

As soon as the letters are taught, by all means 
show their use by putting them together and mak- 
ing the word; use the same letters in forming new 
words. 

There is but little variance between the Object 
Method and the Word Method. The introductory 
pan is the same, and both should be combined in 
order to interest the children. Whole words should 
be presented, and the pupils required to pronounce 
them, without spelling, by sight. Subsequently the 
analysis of these words into sounds and letters may 
be taught. 

First, teach words that are the names of things; 
then words representing the names off qualities and 
actions. The little connective words and those that 
are used as substitutes for other words, should not be 
taught until they are needed in the construction of 
phrases and sentences. 

We will briefly refer to the other methods used in 
teaching children to read. 

The Object Method. 

The children's attention is first directed to some 
object with which they are familiar by sight, name 
and use. 

The teacher shows the object to the children, and 
the name is given by the children. If they cannot 
give the name, the teacher tells them. >>The teacher 
presents a picture of the object, or makes a drawing 
of it upon the board; then the name is plainly writ- 
ten under the drawing. The pupils are now taught 
to distinguish from one another the object, the picture 
of it, and the word representing it. 



16 BEADING. 



Steps in Reading by the Object Method. 

The following order should be observed in teacli- 
iDg beginners to read by the Object Method, as used 
by N. A. Calkins, Assistant Superintendent of 
Schools in New York city : 

First Step. — Teach "whole words by sight that are 
already known b}"- hearing, as signs of objects, quali- 
ties and actions. 

Second Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by 
its elementary sounds. 

Third St£p. — Teach the analysis of the word by the 
names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. 

Fourth Step. — Require the pupils to pronounce the 
word; sound it; spell it. 

Fifth Step. — Group words into phrases and sent- 
ences. 

The children will learn new words by comparing 
the known words with the unknown. 
The Phonic Method. 

Every intelligent and unprejudiced mind will wel- 
come any means by which loose and bad habits of 
enunciation may be cast off, and correct ones formed 
in their stead. 

Children who have been taught and accustomed to 
say judgmunt for judgment, read'n for reading, an 
for and, muss for must, parent tor parent, pass for 
pass, etc., will not be likely, by a single effort, to set 
their speech right. By well directed and persevering 
effort they can do it; with proper guidance and en- 
couragement they will do it, A thorough knowledge 
of the elementary sounds is essential to success in the 



THE PHONIC METHOD. 17 

Phonic Method. It must be made a careful study 
and the teacher should master it. 

The Phonic Method consists in making the learner 
acquainted with the powers of the letters, so that 
when words are before him, he may, by uttering the 
sound of each letter in succession, construct for him- 
self the sound of the word. Such a method, says 
John Gill, of the Normal College, Cheltenham, it is 
impossible to have in a language like the English, A 
purely phonic method is possible only where the 
number of letters and elementary sounds correspond 
where the same letter always represents the same 
sound, and where, in the spelling of words, the num- 
ber of letters and of sounds agree. But these condi- 
tions in English are impossible. The letters are but 
five-eighths of the elementary sounds; one letter often 
represents two or more sounds; some sounds are re- 
presented by more than one letter, and often letters 
are found not sounded at all. 

The principal advantage of this method is, that it 
puts into the hands of the children a key by which 
they may be able to help themselves. The element- 
ary sounds must be known before the children can 
take a single step in advance, without the aid of the. 
teacher. By following the w^ord method strictly, 
the child is unable to advance, except as it is assisted 
by the teacher. 

The best results have been gained by the primary 
teachers in using the Phonic Method as auxiliary to 
the Word Method, but not as a substitute tor it. The 
word must be the unit of thought; it is the natural 



15i BEADING. 



way to begin with the units of language, which are 
words. Language deals with thoughts; words are 
symbols of thought. 

Letters are elements of the forms of words; simple 
sounds are the elements of the sounds of words; 
neither of these elements are units in language. The 
child must know the sounds and the names of the 
letters ; through these aids it may be able to help 
itself. This process, however, is not adapted to the 
child, until it Las learned some words as wholes, as 
units of language, and as representations of thoughts. 

Another advantage also is, it teaches the children 
from the beginning to enunciate distinctly; many 
other advantages are gained by combining the Word 
and Phonic Methods. 

With all the plans that have been considered, let 
the teachers bear in mind that children can never 
learn to read with any degree of ease until they are 
able to call instantly the words in the sentence with- 
out stopping to analyze them. 

By the method suggested, children are enabled to 

read with more interest and expression in a far 

shorter time than by the plans heretofore generally 

pursued. 

The Phonetic Method. 

The Phonic and Phonetic Methods are distinct; 
the phonetic method provides signs to represent all 
the sounds of the language, using the common letters 
each to denote but one sound of that letter, and pro- 
viding slight modifications of these letters to denote 
other sounds. This method is used with success in 
those schools provided with Leigh's Phonetic Reader. 



THREE MORE METHODS. 19 

The Phonotypic Method. 

This is another form of the Phonic Method, pro- 
viding a character or letter for each sound in the 
language. 

The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters 
in place of twenty-six. 

There are those who claim that pupils will learn 
both methods, and become able to read better there- 
by, in a given time, than they usually do when 
taught entirely from the common print. 

This method may be used with success ; but, as 
the schools are not provided with books on the 
Phonotypic plan, w^e will not enlarge upon it. 
The Word-Building Method. 

Its plan is to begin with words ol one letter, as A, 
I, O, and gradually form new words by prefixing or 
aflSxing single letters. The child is taught first to 
pronounce the word, then the letters that form it. 
Separate letters of the alphabet and spelling are 
taught by asking questions similar to the following : 

" What letter is placed after a to form an f " 

" What after an to form and ? " 

" What before and to form land ? " 

The Look>and-Say Method. 

This method is that in which, after the children 
have mastered the alphabet, all words are read with- 
out spelling. 

Attention is directed to each word as a whole, and 
its sound associated with it as a whole. 

In no case is the learner allowed to spell a word 
that he may afterwards recognize and pronounce it. 



20 READING, 



The following things are advanced in favor of this 
method : 

First—For mastering the word by the eye. 

Second— For recognizing the word in the sign, and 
for acquiring practical acquaintance with the number 
of letters and syllables. 

Third— For its suitability to the circumstances of 
common schools. 

The above reasons must commend this method to 
many teachers who have not received special train- 
ing. It best meets the requirements of class in- 
struction. In the class, the aim is to bring out the 
energies of all. This is done through emulation and 
self-respect. 

Now when spelling is permitted, a child has little 
rducement to exert itself to retain a word once seen ; 
but let spelling be forbidden, let the remembrance of 
the word be thrown on the eye, and emulation will 
stimulate some to retain it, and to give it when called 
upon ; an 1 self-respect will be appealed to in the 
others, not to require to be always told by a sharper 
companion. It is a method which requires no special 
prep iraiion, like the phonic, and therefore may be 
entrusted to an inexi^erienced teacher. 
The Sentence Method. 

In this method the teacher does not begin with the 
letters, nor with sepai ate words, but with words in 
combination, that express a thought. Using this 
combination of words as a unit, the separate words 
are learned, as the separate letters are learned by the 
Word Method, that is, without special effort and al- 
most, if not quite, unconsciously. 



THE SENTENCE METHOD. 21 

In teaching this method let it be the aim of the 
teacher, not so much to teach separate sounds, letters 
and words, as to teach and secure the proper expres- 
sion of thought. 

The letters and words must be known, but as they 
will necessarily become known by this method with- 
out much special teaching, they are regarded and 
treated as of secondary importance for the time 
being. 

The attention of the childen should be directed to 
the thought. To this end, real objects and facts are 
at first employed to appeal to the senses and to de- 
mand of the child words to give the thought oral 
expression. 

In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from ob- 
jects, and then seek language to express them. It 
requires a combination of words to express a thought, 
or to give birth to a new idea or thought. 

The advantages claimed for this method over others 
are: 

First — It is a perfectly natural way — teaching the 
child to read very much as he learned to talk. 

Second — The attention of the child is directed to 
the expression of the thought, hence he reads easily 
and naturally. 

Third — It makes the child thoughtful, hence it 
cultivates his intelligence. 

Fourth — In doing this work, it is claimed that it 
accomplishes all that the other methods do, without 
additional time. 



22 REABING. 



The Drawing Method. 

As all words are made up of the letters of the 
alphabet, and differ from each other only in the or- 
der and number of letters, the first step in teaching 
reading, whatever may have been the subsequent 
method has been to teach the children these charac- 
ters. 

Many have been the devices to accomplish this, but 
this method we will present as one of the most suc- 
cessful. It is the Drawing Method ; that is of teach- 
ing the child to draw the letter, and then learn its 
name. 

This process combines from the first the two great 
instruments of teaching and reproducing— the former 
giving knowledge, and the latter testing it and giv- 
ing skill. 

Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, 
seeks its gratification in finding new forms, this 
method of drawing can be used as a means of train- 
ing his eye to quickness and accuracy of observation. 
Lessons should be given upon straight, curved and 
crooked lines, that the children may know what is 
meant by the terms used. 

By actually drawing and naming the parts of a 
letter, its form and name, as a whole, may be easily 
impressed on the memory of the pupil. In this 
manner the learning of the alphabet, instead of be- 
ing a spiritless task, as it has too often proved, is 
exceedingly attractive to the child and becomes a 
valuable aid in cultivating the sense of sight. 

This method may be used with a fair degree of 
success in ungraded schools. 



TEE ALPHABET METHOD. 33 

The Alphabet, or A B C Method. 

The children by this method, are taught the names 
of the letters, and they begin to spell words at first ; 
this is a method of learning spelling and reading at 
once, or rather of learning to read by learning to 
spell. Spelling may be learned through reading, but 
reading through spelling never. The attempt to 
combine two things in one lesson, by diverting the 
learner's attention, interferes with his progress in 
recognizing the words. 

This method was universally used years ago, and 
even now is used in many of the ungraded schools. In 
the best schools, the name or alphabetic method is 
superseded by some of the modern ways. It is an 
imperfect method in that the names of the letters do 
not guide to the pronunciation of the word. 

Take the word mat; by the same method, the 
name of the first letter is em; the second letter is e, 
and the third tee; — pronounced em d tee; by the 
phonic it becomes m-a-t. 

This method produces halting, stumbling readers, 
and it is now abandoned by all good teachers of 
reading ; it also lays the foundation for mechanical, 
unintelligible reading, which characterizes most of 
the schools where it is taught. 

Remarks. — We have given ten different methods 
of teaching reading ; to those who have no method, 
we hope that we offer one, at least, that they may 
use with success. 

Give direct attention to the primary classes in 
reading ; if a child is not taught to read well during 



a4 READING. 



the first two years in school, he will probably be a 
poor reader through life. 

Primary Reading^. 

I. Directions. 

1. Train the pupils to pronounce the words readily 
at sight. 

(a) Print or write the words on the board in 
columns ; pupils pronounce them at sight. 

{h) Write diificult words on the board, and sylla- 
bicate them ; mark the accented syllables ; 
pupils pronounce them. 

(c) Require the pupils to pronounce the words 
forward ; reverse. 

{d) Require the pupils to bring in a portion or 
all of the reading lesson upon the slate ; 
pupils read the lesson from the slate. 

{e) Alternate. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Present to the pupils only one diflSculty at a 
time 

2. Never permit the pupils to spell words in read- 
ing. 

3. Insist upon correct articulation and pronuncia- 
tion, 

Remakks. — If the pupils in the first lessons of 
reading are taught correctly, they will not spell 
words audibly. 

Many ot the common faults in reading may be 
traced to the improper methods in use during the 
first lessons in this subject. Bad habits at this period 



BEAD WORDS, NOT LETTERS. 25 

usually cling to the pupils duriug all their school 
days, and often seriously affect their entire future 
progress. 

The first lessons in reading: are of the greatest im- 
portance, and they should be given in a proper 
manner. 

To do this successfully there must be a system in 
the plans pursued. 

Reading Words. 

The pupils must be familiar wih the words of the 
lesson, so that they can readily pronounce them at 
sight. 

The teacher should introduce a short preliminary 
exercise, for calling the words at sight, as follows : 

Teacher and children alternating one word each ; 
boys and girls alternating one word each ; careless 
pupils alternating with class ; each pupil reading a 
line as rapidly as possible. 

In no instance should the teacher let a pupil stop 
to spell a word. The plan is in violation of the fun- 
damental laws of teaching. It attempts to compel 
the child to do two things at the same time, and to 
do both in an unnatural manner, viz. : to learn read- 
ing and spelling simultaneously, and reading through 
spelling. 

Reading has to deal with sounds and signs of 
thoughts. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which 
is best acquired by writing. 

In attempting to teach reading through spelling the 
effort distracts the attention from the thought ; read- 
ing furnishes facilities for teaching spelling; but spell- 



26 EEABIWG. 



ing does not furnish a suitable means for teaching 
reading. If spelling is permitted, a love of reading 
is not enkindled ; good readers are not produced. 
The above lesson on "Primary Reading," if faith- 
fully presented, will remedy the defects and not 
make halting, stumbling readers. 

Phonics. 

The teacher should be familiar with the sounds of 
the letters, and require the pupils to practise on them 
two or three minutes daily. Let it be a lively exer- 
cise, and insist upon clear, distinct articulation. 

Difficulties. 
Attend to one difficult point at a time ; see that the 
pupils understand it and are able to reproduce what- 
ever you teach them. 

Primary Reading. 

Further Directions. 

1. Train the pupils to read in natural tones. 

{a) Request the pupil to look off the book and 

tell what he reads. 
(6) Select a good reader; request pupils to imitate, 
(c) Teacher illustrate how a sentence should be 

read. 

2. The teacher should illustrate and define difficult 
words. 

{a) Illustrate by objects, pictures, drawings and 
diagrams. 

3. No definitions should be given to those words 
whose meaning can be inferred from the context. 



MAKE BASTE SL OWLY. 27 

4. Every piece should be carefully studied before it 
is read aloud. 

Kemarks. — Reading should not be a mere me- 
chanical exercise. The end of reading is not to 
give vocal utterance to a succession of words, but to 
give expression to thought and feeling. 

Reading is the most important subject taught in 
school. It is especially important that it be 
thouroghly taught in the primary classes. The 
" sing-song drawl " and the " nasal twang," which so 
often prevail in the school-room, should be avoided. 

Almost all children can be taught to read well ; 
they imitate, unconsciously and naturally, the voices 
of their playmates. 

Teachers too Ambitions. 

Many of the teachers are too ambitious in one 
direction, that is, to promote pupils to higher books, 
when they are not qualified. 

This is a great mistake. Perhaps three-fifths of 
the pupils of our country are reading in books which 
they do not understand, or in which they take no 
interest ; this is one of the principal causes of me- 
chanical reading ; through this error in judgment, 
the pupils have acquired a drawling way, a lifeless, 
mechanical style. 

Reformation Needed. 

I am glad to admit that a reformation has begun 
in this department of instruction, but it will need the 
constant and varied efforts of teachers and parents 
for years in order to overcome the effects that have 
already resulted from past negligence. 



28 READING. 



Means of Improvement. 

Let the teacher select (from some book or maga- 
zine) a story which he will be sure shall interest the 
pupils. 

Let him give the book containing it to a pupil, 
asl^ing him to read the story over a few times, to 
become familiar with it ; and at or near the close 
of school, let the pupil read it aloud to his school- 
mates. 

As he reads, do not discourage him by too frequent 
interruptions, but occasionally, when he relapses into 
a drawl, repeat the passage, kindly, in a better way 
and ask him to notice and imitate your manner. 

When he has ended, read to them yourself some 

other good story, and let your style be worthy of 

imitation. 

Reading Sentences. 

Let the standard for good reading be its resem- 
blance to good conversation. 

The pupils may be led to attend to the thoughts 
expressed, by requiring them to find out what the 
sentences tell without reading them aloud. The 
teacher may aid them by proceeding in a manner 
Bimilar to the following: J^equest the class to study 
the first sentence, and each member to raise a hand 
when able to tell what the sentence is about. Call 
upon different pupils to state, in their own language, 
what the sentence tells ; in this way they will readily 
learn to read with easy conversational tones. 

Distinct Enunciation. 

Special care should be taken in this step to train 



THE TEACHER SHOULD READ WELL. 29 

pupils in habits of clearness and distinctness of 
enunciation ; also to read in an easy, speaking voice. 
Overcome the faults in reading by taking up one 
kind at a time, and continue the practice until the 
pupils clearly perceive the fault and take proper 
means to correct it. 

The Teacher Should he a Good Reader* 

As a requisite essential to success, the teacher 
of reading should be a good reader. With proper 
management it is a very easy matter to make children 
read well, and even the teacher that is a tolerable 
reader may teach pupils to read. That children 
have learned to read under such teachers I am will, 
ing to admit, because the fact is evident ; but that 
they have been taught by their masters 1 do not 
admit, for it is. impossible for any person to teach 
well what he does not understand. 

If a child has sometimes learned to read under an 

incompetent instructor, it has been, not because of 

the teacher, but in spite of him ; and the question is, 

not how much has he learned, but how much would 

he have learned had the teacher been qualified to 

teach him 

Difficult Words. 

The young pupil's knowledge of the meaning of 
words is limited. One object of reading is to increase 
the knowledge of words. No definition should be 
given to those words whose meaning can be inferred 
from the context. 

Resource should be had to a dictionary only when 
he cannot think out the meaning from the context. 



.10 READING. 

The child learns the meaning of words by hearing 
them used — seldom by formal definition. 

The teacher may impress the idea by resorting to 
objects, this is the natural way. Sometimes pictures 
may be at hand to throw light upon the word ; again, 
a drawing may be given at the board to illustrate the 
meaning of the word. 

Defining Words in Primary Classes. 

In no case should a definition be committed to 
memory and mechanically recited. 

The meaning should be inferred from the context, 
and the pupil requested to use the word correctly in 
a short sentence. 

Let the pupil tell what the word means in his own 
language. 

A definition is a general truth, a deduction ; chil- 
dren should be taught primary truths, and, as their 
reason develops, deduce the definitions, rules and 
principles. Develop correct ideas, then give defini- 
tions. We must not encourage teachers to require 
pupils to commit the definitions to memory in the 
primary reading books. But we would insist that 
the pupils understand the meaning of the words used. 

<* Mind the Paases." 

Teachers sometimes instruct pupils to stop and 
count "one" at a comma, "one, two," at a semi- 
colon. This leads .to a mechanical, unnatural style 
of reading. First attend to the reading of sentences, 
and lead the pupils to see how the pauses aid in 
understanding the meaning. Do not teach reading 



QUALITIJSS OF THE VOICE. ^\ 

as if attention to " pauses " is the chief object to be 
attained. 

Reciting definitions of pauses is not only useless 
but it leads to a great waste of time. Teach the use 
of the pauses in the lesson, instead of the definition 
of them. A few teachers pay no attention to the 
explanation of the words, but turn their attention 
almost entirely to the names and the pronounciation ; 
important points, to be sure, but by no means the 
life-giving elements of good reading. 

Qualities of the Voice. 

Pure Tone — It is a clear, full and cheerful tone. It 
is the language of common conversation. 

Rotund Tone — It is the pure tone, rounded, deep- 
ened and intensified. It is the language of sublimity, 
grandeur, awe and reverence. 

Aspirate Tone — It is whispered utterance. It is the 
language of hate, fear and secrecy. 

Outtural Tone — It is a sepulchral tone and has its 
resonance in the throat. It is the language of hate, 
rage and contempt. 

Pectoral Tone — It is low pure tone. It is the lan- 
guage of deep feeling, sorrow. 

Falsetto Tone — It is a very high tone. It is the 
language or irritability, etc. 

!Emphasis. 

Definition. 

1. A particular stress of voice given to certain 
words, or parts of a discourse ; a distinctive utterance 
of words specially significant. 



32 REABINa, 



\ 



What Constitute the Emphatic Word or Words. 

1. A new idea or fact, one now presented for the 
first time, constitutes the emphatic word or words. 

3. That which presents no new or dominant fact 
or thought, is the unemphatic clause. 

Characteristics thxit Mark Unemphatic Glauses. 

1. Repetition. 

2. Anticipation. 

3. Sequence. 

4. Subordination. 

5. Knowledge beforehand. 

Rules in Heading. 

Do not require children to commit the rules to 
memory in reading. They are hindrances instead of 
helps. If the teachers know how to read, those aids 
in which many school-books abound, are worse than 
useless, because positively injurious. 

The competent teacher needs but two rules by 
which to be guided in teaching the pupils to read : 

Mrst — Make the pupils understand what is to be 
read. 

Second — Require them to read naturally. To 
expect a child to read what it does not understand 
is unreasonable, and yet nothing is more common. 

It is idle to put marks, rules and directions whether 
by words or characters, into books intended to be 
read by children, for the reason that they seldom or 
never use them. 



READING. 33 



Special Preparation for Keadiug* 

The teacher should carefully study the reading 
lesson ; should be familiar with the pronunciation of 
every word, including its literal and its received 
meaning. He should give the pupils the history of 
the author and some of his prominent characteristics, 
— this will add to the interest. Should awaken 
thought in the minds of the pupils, — this will secure 
interest. It matters not how simple the lesson may 
be, previous preparation is indispensable. Previous 
study will add new power and generate better 
methods by means of which success will be insured. 
The teacher will become independent, self-reliant, 
and a "law unto himself." 

Intermediate Reading. 

/. Directions. 
1. Teach and train the pupils to understand. 
(a) The prominent objects mentioned. 
(6) The prominent facts mentioned concerning 

the object, 
(c) What they read, and to be able to tell the 

story, or the principal facts in the lesson. 
(cZ) The connected thought, and to express it 
orally and written. 

//. Cautions. 

1. Attend to one subject of criticisim at a time, 
and require pupils to correct. 

2. Practice on one sentence at a time. 

3. See that all the pupils understand the thought, 
and are able to express it. 

4. Examine the subject carefully before reading:. 



34 READING. 



III. Besults. 
The pupils in the Intermediate Classes in Reading 
should be able — 

1. To pronounce the words accurately. ~ 

2. To define the words. 

3. To understand the subject-matter. 

4. To explain the language. 

5. To account for marks of punctuation. 

6. To point out what is true, beautiful and good 
in the sentiment. 

7. To show the manner of delivery, and give 
reason for it. 

Remarks. — The number of those who can be 
properly called good readers in our schools, is small ; 
but how large is the number who can read quite 
indifl'erently, or very poorly. 

As a general thing it must be admitted that read- 
ing has not been well taught in our schools. It has 
received formal attention and frequent inattention. 
Time enough is given to the exercise, but not enough 

attention. 

Intellectual Exercise. 

The elocutionary part of reading should receive 
but little attention in the intermediate classes. With 
so many pupils under your training, it cannot be 
expected that you will go into all the minutia of 
elocutionaiy drill. Your aim must be to teach well 
what you undertake to teach. You cannot even 
hope to make all your pupils accomplished elo- 
cutionists, but you can make them good ana 
intelligent readers. When you find a pupil that 



A MODEL LESSON. 35 

takes to elocution it may be well to encourage it, 
but not to the neglect nor the expense of other sub- 
jects of instruction. It may be asked, what is good 
reading? I call that good reading when a person 
reads distinctly, gives the sense with such intonation 
and emphasis as to be pleasant to the hearer, and in 
such a manner as to be easily heard and readily 
understood. 

Take, for example, the following beautiful selec- 
tion, and see how many pertinent questions may be 
asked in reference to it : 

Nelly. 
Nelly sat under the apple tree, 

And watched the shadows of leaves at play, 
And heard the hum of the honey bee. 

Gathering sweets through the sunny day. 

Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ; 

Her head inclined wiih a gentle grace ; 
A wandering squirrel was not afraid 

To stop and peer in her quiet face. 

Nelly was full of a pure delight, 

Born of the beauty of earth and sky, 
Of the wavering boughs, and the sunshine bright, 

And the snowy clouds that went sailing by. 

Nelly forgot that her dress was old, 

Her hands were rough and her feet was bare ; 

For round her the sunlight poured its gold, 
And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air. 

And the distant hills in their glory lay, 
And soft to her ear came the robin's call : 



36 READING. 



'Twas sweet to live on that summer day, 
For the smile of God was over all. 

And Nelly was learning the lesson sweet 

That when the spirit is full of care, 
A nd we long our father and God to meet, 

We may go to nature, and find him there. 

1. Where did Nelly sit ? 

2. What two things did she do ? 

3. What is meant by the leaves at play ? 

4. What were the bees doing ? 

5. What is said of Nelly's hands ? 

6. What is said of her head ? 

7. What is said of the squirrel ? 

8. Of what was Nelly full ? 

9. What is meant by being full of pure delight ? 

10. Of what four things was it born? 

11. What is meant by being born of these things ? 

12. What did Nelly forget ? 

13. Why did she forget these things ? 

14. What is meant by the sunlight pouring its 
gold ? 

15. What is meant by kissed by the summer air ? 

16. What is said of the distant hills ? 

17. What is meant by the phrase in their glory lay? 

18. What is said of the robin? 

19. Why was it sweet to live on that summer day? 

20. What lesson was Nelly learning? 

21. What is the meaning of gathering ? Inclined ? 
Peer ? Boughs ? Nature ? 

22. Make sentences in which those words in some 
of their forms shall be used correctly. 



BEETORIGAL DIVISIONS. 



37 



23. Write a short composition about Kelly. 

Directions. — The piece is descriptive and should 
be so read as to give the hearer a clear idea of the 
scenes described. State each thing mentioned as 
though you were telling some person what you had 
seen. 

The frequent or occasional study of reading 
lessons in this manner will be attended with two 
advantages. The pupils will read them better, for 
they will have a sympathy for the author, and a 
more intelligent perception of the meaning. 

The answering of the question will prove very 
serviceable, by unfolding the sense of the piece, and 
thus enabling one to read it more understandingly. 
It will produce thought^ and whenever we produce 
thought we secure interest. 

In intermediate classes constant attention should 
be given to punctuation, accent, inflection, emphasis 
and correct pronunciation. 

Explanations of historical, biographical or scien- 
tific allusions, should be given by the teacher and 
reviewed in subsequent recitations. 

Rhetorical Division of Langnage. 

a. Letters. 



A. Composition. 



'1. Prose, 



and 



L2. Poetry. 



5. Dialogues. 
■{ e. History. 
I d. Essays. 
ye. Orations, etc, 
{a. Pastoral. 
I &. Lyric. 
I c. Epic, 
j d. Dramatic. 
\o. Elegy. 



38 READING. 



1. Humorous. 
B. Subject Matter. \ 2. Pathetic. 



3. iSublime. 

1. Narrative. 
C. Discourse. - -{2. Descriptive 
3. Didactic. 

Note. — Tlie teacher in the higher classes should 
train the pupils on the above. Let them tell the 
difference between prose and poetry ; the subject 
matter and the discourse. 

General Remarks on Reading. 

No subject is of more importance than how to 
leach Reading understandingly. Good reading is 
calculated to develop the mind, the body and the 
imagination. Although so important, yet how sadly 
neglected is the power of reading. Teachers are 
able to give the definitions of Arithmetic, Geography 
and Grammar, but few can give an intelligent defi- 
nition of reading. 

Elocution is the art of speaking so as to be heard, 
so as to be felt, so as to impress. The first essential 
is to speak or read so as to be heard distinctly. Never 
speak above or below your natural voice ; if you do 
so, the effect will be lost. The three great rules that 
all should observe in reading or speaking, are : "Be 
sure you have something to say ; be careful how you 
say it ; and stop when you are done." Speak so that 
the listener may understand you ; speak so as to be 
felt, hence be in earnest ; if you do not feel what 
you say, you cannot expect your hearers to have any 
feeling. 



CORBEGT SPECIAL FAULTS. 33 

How may you Teach so as to Carry Out 
these Conditions. 

We answer, study so as to thoroughly understand 
what you teach. If you do not know what is re- 
quired, you are not qualified to teach, and in order to 
become qualified you must listen to good examples. 

Attend to Faults. 

If you have a fault, attend to it, overcome it by 
practice. Much time must be taken in correcting 
bad habits of reading, but you must take the time. 
But whatever you do, be sure to teach the pupils to 
do it in the right way. If the teacher wishes to 
succeed he must learn how intonation and articula- 
tion are to be taught. Before he can teach it he must 
learn it. It can only be acquired through study. 

Rules in books might as well be omitted ; correct 
reading must be taught by example. The object of 
teaching reading is to make good readers. Before 
good reading and good speaking can be taught it is 
necessary to learn how to articulate distinctly and 
pronounce correctly. If you are careless in one 
single point, your pupils will be careless not only on 
that point but on others. 

In reading you must give each sound its true value. 
The requirements in reading are two-fold : 

First — To express rightly what you read, and 

Second — To do this pleasantly and naturally. A 
perfect understanding of what you read is the founda- 
tion ; you must understand the thoughts of the author 
and make the thoughts your own. 



40 BEADING. 



It is the exception to find good readers in our 
schools ; the reason is because pupils are not required 
to study the lesson as in other branches. 

Expression. 

This adds force, meaning, beauty and power to the 

passage. After the pupils can speak distinctlj^ they 

should be taught to express the sense, to give the 

exact meaning. Jn no other way can this be taught, 

than through study on the part ot the pupils. They 

must read and think. 

Posture. 

Pupils should be taught how to stand, and they 
should not be allowed to utter a word until they 
assume a position to give full force to tbeir utterance ; 
they -should not be allowed to appear awkward. 

Do not allow your pupils to mumble words, smother 
sounds and destroy the sense of a passage. 

The position should be perfectly easy, natural and 
graceful ; the posture should indicate the sentence to 
be spoken. Insist upon your pupils always taking an 
easy, graceful and gentlemanly or ladylike position 
in reading or speaking. 

Breath. 

Another important point is to know how to breathe 
properly. It is well to exercise the lungs before we 
commence to read. The power of the reader or 
speaker consists in having perfect control of hia 
breathing, so as to utter his words in a proper and 
most effective manner. It is only when you have 
perfect control of the breathing that you can give 
full expression to words and sentences. 



ROW TO 8TTGCEED. 41 

How to Cwaiii Success in Readingo 

The surest way to attain success in reading is to 
begin to develop thought. Heading may be reduced 
to a few general rules, namely : You must com- 
mence at the right place — at the beginning ; go in 
the right direction ; have a high standard in view ; 
be perfectly natural ; cultivate by all means natural- 
ness. If the pupils have unnatural tones, make 
them repeat after you sentences and whole passages. 
This will insure correct pronounciation, distinctness 
of utterance and expression. 

Let me caution you against placing dependence 
upon rules of inflection of the voice given in reading 
books. All that you need is to fully understand the 
thought; when you have the thought fully, you will 
know all about inflection of the voice. If a person 
cannot translate what he reads into his own language, 
he most assuredly does not understand it. If you 
cannot bring out in your own languge the full mean- 
ing of the lesson, you are not the one to teach, and 
you should either adopt some other avocation, or go 
through a rigid course of reading. 

A great deal of teaching in reading is a positive 
injury to schools, and all because the teacher does 
not know how to teach. " Practice makes perfect ; " 
rapidity and correctness are attained only through 
frequent repetition No one ever arrives at distinc- 
tion by sitting with arms folded ; you must be will- 
ing to think, to exercise, to labor. It is not an easy 
thing to become a good reader, it is only acquired 
through practice — continual practice. There is no 
other way than through practice. 



43 READINa. 



The following rules are taken from " Kidd's Elo- 
cutiou." They should be carefully studied and 
practiced : 

i^V.si!— Understand well what is read. 

SecoTid — See to it that pupils never read without 
fulfilling the conditions of proper position and pos- 
ture, 

Make them take the position God intended them to 
take; train, not teach; there is a diflference between 
the two. 

Third — Insist upon frequent and natural breathing. 
Good breathing is essential to health. 

Fourth — Reach the heart of the pupil. This is 
done by interesting them, by making them under- 
stand what they read. 

i^//77i— Cultivate a perfectly easy, distinct and 
natural voice, avoid all labored efforts ; let the voice 
come out full. Let pronunciation be correct, inflec- 
tion natural ; give the best models, but never rules. 
Make pupils repeat the pronunciation of words they 
are in the habit of mis-pronouncing. Modulation 
and intonation should be varie-d but always natural. 

Sixth — Have your pupils speak with naturalness. 
If the subject be understood any one will speak 
naturally. Train them to speak by the highest 
standard they possess. 

Seventh — Be in earnest. If the pupil has not an 
earnest manner, it proves that he does not understand 
his subject. 



MECHANICAL BEADmC. 43 

Tliese Conditions are Absolutely Necessary lo 
Success in Reading. 

Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not 
coasider the reading exercise an unimportant one. 
Teach and train the pupils to be readers. It is the 
art of arts, and in it are the germs of growth and 
development. 

We read in the Bible at the eighth chapter of 
Nehemiah, eighth verse, how they used to read in 
olden times: 

" So they read in the book in the law of God dis- 
tinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to un- 
derstand the reading." 

There are different kinds of reading, which are 
also often confounded ; mechanical reading ; intelli- 
gent reading ; and intellectual reading. 

Mechanical reading, 'per se, is no reading at all ; it 
is but a form of voice training. It may include pro- 
nounciation, articulation, enunciation, inflection, 
tone, pause, harmony, rhythm, and emphasis. A 
child may learn every one of these, in a foreign lan- 
guage, — learn them to perfection, it he be well drilled 
in them by means of directions and imitation, and 
yet not understand one word of what he reads while 
he gives them. 

An intelligent reader is one who understands what 
he reads, who takes in the author's thought. There 
are various degrees in intelligent reading. One per- 
son takes in the author's thought very vaguely, 
another much more clearly, another quite clearly and 
definitely. It is not possible for a young child to ba 



44 REKDING. 



more than an intelligent reader, but as he grows older 
he should become more ; yet how many adults there 
are who never get beyond the child's power of read- 
ing. Take, for instance, the well-informed man who 
never will be wise ; he is eminently an intelligent 
reader, but there is no hope for him that he will ever 
become an intellectual reader. 

Intellectual reading is not only a taking in, clearly 
and definitely, of the author's meaning, but it is also 
a ready recognition of the relation of that meaning, 
a prompt assimilation of it, and a consequent growth. 
This is the kind of reading that reigns in the stu- 
dent's den and the philosopher's study. That man 
who has the original power, or the acquired habit, 
which is often more than an equivalent for the origi- 
nal power, to grasp readily and clearly the meaning 
of what he reads, is always one whom all others 
envy. And yet this power, valuable beyond calcu- 
lation, may be given to each child in our schools, if 
we can but find the right way to secure it for him. 

The question then is : How shall we train our 
children so that they shall become not only intelli- 
gent but intellectual readers? — so that they shall 
become not only intellectual silent readers, but also 
accomplished oral readers ? 

By assigning to the lesson in voice-training all 
those exercises which pertain to voice-culture and 
discipline of the organs, also drill in pronounciation 
and a consideration of emphasis and pauses, illus- 
trated by mistakes taken from yesterday's lesson and 
difficuties in to-day's, we shall relieve the reading 



J)0 NOT PEBMIT INTERR UPTION. 45 

lesson proper of the necessity of taking note of all 
that machinery which produces effect, and leave the 
teacher and class time and opportunity to study the 
thought the passage contains, and to give it a free 
and natural expression. Let it be understood by the 
class as well as the teacher, that the reading lesson 
should be a clear, clean-cut process of thought carried 
on to expression, and should not be interrupted by 
continued, trivial and harrassing corrections. What 
is more painful than to see a child rise in his class, 
full of the thought the passage contains, confident in 
his power to give it good expression, his eye a-kindle 
and his cheeks aglow, and then to see him suddenly 
brought to a blank stand-still by a dozen upraised 
hands and snapping fingers, because, forsooth, he 
has omitted an " a," or a " the," or miscalled some 
simple word he knew quite well, or skipped some 
useless comma ? 

Where such practices are allowed, the reading- 
lesson becomes a mere game in pronuciation, and a 
correct handling of the voice according to rules. 
Such games are good to make the children keen- 
sighted, quick- though ted, and correct ; but their place 
is not in the reading-lesson, and if we keep them 
there we shall go on forever teaching only v/ords, 
words, words. 

Let us have first the thought, then the expression, 
and last and least, the mechanical defects. Better 
that the thought should be full-born, and clothed In 
garments with here and there a rent, than that it 
should be still-born and the garments without a flaw. 



46 READING. 



As in language, the thought is the root of which 
the word is the blossom, so in reading, an under- 
standing of the author's meaning is the root of which 
oral reading is the blossom. If, then, we find our 
blossoms defective, it behooves us to look to the 
condition of the roots. 

But what method will help us here ? How can we 
make sure that a child understands what he reads? 
Children imitate so easily, and habit counterfeits 
nature so closely, how can we be suie that we are 
not misled? Only by studying the lesson with 
children ; only by having before every reading-lesson 
a language-lesson upon the subjeot-matter of the 
reading ; only by compelling the children, by means 
of questions, to think, to reason, and to express. To 
express the thoughts of the lesson, first in their own 
words, and then in the words of the book ; also, 
whenever the subject-matter may be, from any cause 
whatsoever, vague to the children's minds, by illus- 
trating it with objects, with pictures, — printed pic- 
tures, and outline pictures drawn upon the black- 
board, and with what the English training-schoolfl 
call '* picturing out words." 



PHONICS. 



This important subject receives but little attention 
in the public schools of the country. Why it 13 
omitted, when it adds so much beauty to expression, 
is a question unanswered by thousands. 

The object of teaching this subject should be — 

First — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
children may readily distinguish the sounds heard in 
speaking and reading 

Second — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
pupils may learn to produce the sounds correctly in 
using language. To acquire an articulation which 
shall be at once accurate and tasteful, it is necessary : 

1. To obtain an exact knowledge of the elementary 
sounds of the language. 

2. To learn the appropriate place of these sounds. 

3. To apply this knowledge constantly in convers- 
ing, reading and speaking, with a view to correct 
every deviation from propriety which we may detect 
in expressing them. 

A good articulation is not to be acquired in a day, 
nor from a few lessons. Practice should begin with 
the alphabet, and continue through the whole course 
of education, and even then there will remain room 
for improvement. 



48 PHONICS. 

Great care should be taken in giving these lessons, 
that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils 
can make every sound and combination which it 
contains, readily and perfectly. 

The teacher should make the sounds, and then 
require the pupils to imitate them. The pupils 
should stand or sit erect, and use the natural ttmes 
of the voice. Only one or two sounds should be 
taken for a lesson. 

The exercise should not continue more than five 
minutes ; it may be introduced in the reading or 
spelling exercise, or the whole school may join in it. 

Tell the children " to open the mouth and move 
the lips," to speak distinctly and to enunciate every 
sound perfectly. Time should not be wasted in the 
endeavor to teach children definitions or descrip- 
tions of the various sounds of the letters. The chief 
aim should be to train the organs of hearing to 
acuteness, and the organs of speech to flexibility and 
accuracy. 

Notation Marks or Diacritical Signs. 

The pupils should be taught the correct sounds 
and the signification of the different marks. All the 
vowels and many of the consonants have marks to 
distinguish their sounds. 

After a sound is learned the teacher should write 
the letter on the board with its proper mark. The 
pupils should be required to copy and to reproduce 
every exercise. Let the drill be thorough. 

Tell the pupils that when a short horizontal line is 
placed above the vowels — called the macron — it indi- 



STjaGESTIONS. 49 



cates the long sound ; that a short curved line with 
curye downward placed above the vowels — called 
a hreve — indicates the short sound ; that two dots 
placed above the letter a indicate the Italian sound, 
etc. 

We find but verj few teachers who are able to 
give all the sounds of the English language correctly, 
and many are unable to tell the kind of a mark or 
sign that indicates a certain sound. 

It requires study and practice. We need not 

expect distinct speaking so long as we neglect this 

important art. 

Suggestions. 

1. Train the organs of hearing to distinguish 
readily and accurately the different sounds of lan- 
guage. 

2. Train the organs of speech to produce these 
sounds with ease and accuracy. 

3. Train the pupils to the correction of faults of 
enunciation and pronunciation in reading and speak- 
ing. 

4. Train pupils in every lesson upon the elements. 

5. Master the analysis before you attempt to teach 
it. 

6. Let the drill be accurate 

The following pages are taken by permission from 
Hoose's " Studies in Articulation," the standard book 
upon the subject, published by Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
Syracuse, N. Y. Price 50 cts. 



50 PHONICS. 

VOWELS = TONIC ELEMENTS. 



1. Long a = a+e := q =^ ey =^ ao =■ an 
z=. ea =^ ay =^ ei =■ ai == ai(/h = eigh = alf-=. 
a compound, or diphthongal sound, with its 
radical or initial tone in a-^e, and the close 
or vanish in e-7;e : the vanish is not heard 
until the mouth begins to close while attempt- 
ing to prolong the radical, thus throwing the 
tongue up towards the roof of the mouth, 
which changes the tone into the vanish in e. 

Both initial and vanish are capable of in- 
definite prolongation; yet for a the vanish 
must be very brief. 

Note. — When used as a word, and unemphatic, a has 
a very brief sound, approacliing to that of u, or 6, or 
possibly e. 

FOR PEACTICB. 

1. ale, fate, Kate, hate, mate, gray, gate, re. 
'2. prate, reign, eight, ratio, neigh, amen, slain, 

straisjht. 
S. chamber, squalor, main, aid, tiara, yea, 

pain, obey, wraith, player, apparatus, pa» 



rOWUL SOUNDS. 51 

trou, strata, patriotic, aye, Bey, heinous, 
say, tomato, bate^ whey, data, caret, slate, 
gauge, gaol, jail, day, break, veil, grey, pray- 
er, shaik, half-penny, sleigh, ray, strait, 
daze, prey, graze, rajah, prays, rail, pale. 



2. Short a = a^ = WQ^ = a^ = a(X = a sim- 
ple element. Yet a better study of it is given 

by Bush, who considers it = a-|-e-rr = a 
compound sound, the initial in a-^, and the 
vanish in e-?T. This appears more clearly if 
the tone, a, be inflected either upwards or 
downwards : the vanish is heard only at the 
very closing of the sound, as the vocal or- 
gans begin to relax their tension. The van- 
ish is very short; the radical is incapable 
of being prolonged, and is to be uttered with 
staccato brevity. The tongue is raised not 
so high as for e, and higher than for a ; the 
mouth is wider open than for e. 

An attempt to prolong the tone produces a 
drawl. 

It is held, as above remarked, that the 
sound of a has no vanish; perhaps it is 
very generally so regarded. 



53 PHomcs. 



This sound should never, in practice, be 
allowed to degenerate into that of Italian a, 
or that of short e. 

(See Nos. 4 and 8, following.) 

FOR PRACTICE. 

1. man, cat, bat, rat, hat, mat, mall, gap, sat, 
marigold, chanticleer, vat, accurate, pecan, 
salver, guaranty. 

2. plaid, bade, jack, jag, algebra, maltreat, 
albite, adder, chap, adage, alternate, tassel, 
accident, talc, seraglio, guarantee. 

3. national, rational, salmon, stamp, patriot- 
ic, half-penny, raillery, raspberry, passage, 
valet, pansy, radices, exact, plat, wax, 
strand, Isaac. 



3. Long before E, ^ =r ^ = ai* = ga = ei = 
hei = a simple element, with possibly the 
initial in a, but without any vanish. 

Or, better by far, k may be regarded as a 
modification of Q-nd, by which it is to be 
understood that, with the vocal organs placed 
so as to utter e, the sound of a be attempted, 
steadily holding the organs the while rigidly 
for e as far as possible, taking special care 



VOWJEL SOUI^DS. 53 

that there he no vanish, or different sound, 
heard at the close of the utterance. 

This tone is a distinct one, neither a, nor 
a, and should he mastered hy practice ; it is 
not a sound modified hy r, although followed 
hy it. 

The extremes to he studiously avoided are 
a and a; properly uttered, it is a firm and 
pleasant tone. 

The tone is a long sound, capahle of heing 
continued without destroying its quality. 

FOB PBACTICE. 

/. hare, fare, share, hair, care, chair, ne'er, 
stare, glare, st^ir, mare, chary, lair, laird, 

'' h^re. 

^. where, heir, rare, th^re, spare, prayer, e'er, 
square, swear, barely, chare, aware, hear, 
^, flare. 

S. harelip, solitaire, solidare, their, pear, pair, 
tear, tare, parent, fairy, ere, staring, paring, 
insnare, blare, daring, wear, scare, p^re, 
dare, scarce. 



4. Italian 3i = au = ua = ea = al = e =^ 
ahz=zQ. simple element usually so regarded. 



54 PHONICS. 



CONSONANTS. 



8UBY0CAL (SIIBTONIC) MD ASPIRATE (ATONIC) ELEIilMTS. 

Note. — All subtonics liave "a momentary termina- 
tive portion of tlie subtonic sound," called the vooule; 
it approaches e-rr. 

35. B = &e = a simple element, subvocal^ 
short, explosive. To make the sound : Close 
the lips and separate the jaws as if to pro- 
nounce the word h-oy ; close the back nostrils 
with the soft palate ; then allow the vocalized 
breath to compress itself within the mouth, 
until the lips are suddenly forced apart by 
the compression. 

All vocality ceases instantly at the separat- 
ing of the lips. 

FOR PRACTICE. 

1. boy, babe, bay, boil 
^. bat, bite, bit, bank. 

36. 9 (s^'/O = s = a simple element ; as- 
pirate, capable of being continued, yet should 
be very short. 



CONSOITANT SOUNDS. 55 

It is made by bringing into contact, or very 
nearly so, the front teeth only; open the lips, 
draw back from tbe front teeth the end of 
the tongue as if to pronounce the words (^-ent, 
s-un, and emit between the tongue and teeth 
or upper gum the unvocal breath only. 

FOR PBAOTICB. 

1. qite, song, Qion, sing. 

2, nieqe, gipher, sell, ^entury. 



37. -e (hard) = eh = k = (gu=:Jc+w) = 
cJc = gh = qu =z a, simple element ; aspirate, 
abrupt, short, percussive. 

To make the sound : Open the mouth as 
if to pronounce the word €,-at, holding the 
unvocai breath abruptly stopped at the larynx, 
or upper windpipe, compressing the breath 
the while within the windpipe and lungs; 
then allow the compressed breath to escape 
suddenly and forcibly through the mouth, \mt 
without vocality. 

FOR PRAOTieE, 

I. -ehorus, kind, tal«, pi^ni^, king, liquor, 
^. Hf hei^, fall, lick, bu^hu, hough. 



56 PHOXICS. 



RECAPITULATION AND INDEX, 



14-15 

15-16 

16-17 

17-19 

19-20 

20 

20-21 

21-22 

22 

22 

22-24 

24-25 
25-26 
26 
26 



VOWEL ELEMENTS. 



Page No. 

13-14 



1 a=a+e=:e(=No. 11)... ale, dey. 

2 a. ..at. 

3 a=e(=No. 10)... air, ere. 

4 a... arm. 

5 a... ask. 

6 a=6 (=No. 22)... awe, ought. 

7 a=o (=No. 18)... what, ox. 

8 e=i (=No 15)... eve, shire, 

9 e...inet. 

10 e=:a (=:No. 3)... ere, air. 

11 e=:a (=No. 1).. dey, ale. 

12 e = i=y (-jSTos. 16, 32). ..her, sir, 

syrt. 

13 i=a+^=:y (=:No. 30)... Ice, by. 

14 l=y (=No. 31)... in, symbol. 

15 i=e (=5^0. 8)... shire, eve. 

16 i=y=e (=No3. 32, 12). ..sir, syrt. 

her. 



VOWSL ELEMENTS. 57 

Page No. 

26-27 17 6=6HhBo...old. 

27-30 18 6=a (=No. 7)... ox, what. 

30 19 6=ii (=:No. 26)... son, u*p. 
30-31 20 0=00=11 (=Nos. 23, 27). ..do. too, 

rule. 

31 21 = ^ = 11 ( = ]Sros. 24, 28). ..wolf, 

good, put. 
31 22 6=a (=No. 6)... ought, awe. 

31 23 oo = u = o (r=Nos. 27, 20)... too, 

rule, do. 

32 24 00 = u = ( = Nos. 28, 21) . . .good, 

^ put, wolf. 

32-33 25 u=:§+^...flue. 

33-34 26 u=6 {-^o. 19)...up, son. 

34-35 27 u=o = oo (=Nos. 20, 23)... rule, 

do, too. 
'35 28 ur=or=d6 (=Nos. 21, 24)... put, 

W9lf, good. 
35-36 29 u...h^rn. 
36 30 J -I (=No. 13)... by, ice. 
36 31 y=i (=::No. 14)... symbol, m. 

36 32 y=e=i (=I^os. 12, 16)...syrt, her, 

sir. 

36-37 33 oi=:oy=:o+i...oil, boy. 

37 34 ou=ow=o + ^...our, now. 



58 PEOXICS. 



CONSONAISTT ELEMENTS. 



Page 

41 


No. 

35 b...babe. 


41-42 


36 Q {soft)=B (=No. 58)...Qent, sing. 


42-43 


37 « (to'^)=«li=:k(=Nos.40,47)... 




■eat, -ehoriis, kine. 


43-44 


38 ch=t + sli {nearly)... ohviYoh. 


44 


39 Qh (soft) =r sli ( = No. 60)...9liaise, 




shun. 


44 


40 €li (to'cr)=k=-e(=]Sros. 47, 37)... 




eliorus, kine, -eat. 


44 


41 d...day. 


45 


42 f=pli(=rNo. 54)... fan, phantom. 


45-46 


43 g(/iar^)...gay. 


46 


44 g (so/Q =r d 4- zh {nearly) = j ( = No. 




46)... gem, jay. 


46-47 


45 h...hay. 


47 


46 j=:d+zh(?imr/y)=g(=No 44)... 




jay, gem. 


47 


47 k=« = €h( = Nos. 37,40)=qu... 




kine, -eat, -ehorus, coquette, • 


48 


48 l...luU. 


48-49 


49 m...maim. 



CONSONANT ELEMENTS. 59 

Page T^o. 

49 60 n...nuii. 

49 51 ng=n (— E"o. 52)... sing, ink. 

50 52 n=rng (r^No. 51)... ink, sing. 
50-51 53 p=pli (=iNo. 54)... pay, naphtha. 
61. 54 ph=f (=:m. 42). . .phantom, fan. 

51-52 55 qu=:k+w... queen. 

52 56 r {initial) .. .Td^, 

52-53 57 x {final) .. .02,^. 

63 58 s {sharjp)—^ (^No. 36)...sing,(5ent. 

63-54 59 § (so/^, or vocal) — z ( = E"o. 70)... 

hag, zone. 
64-55 60 sh=9h (r^ISTo. 39)... shun, Qhaise. 
6'5 61 t...tent. 
^Q 62 th (s7^arp)...thin. 
56 QZ ^ {flat OT vocal)... i\ij. 
66-57 64 V... valve. 

67 65 w=oo {very short) {nearly) .. .-vfrndi. 

68 66 whrrh4-w...what. 

68 67 X {sharp) =k + s . . .box. 

^^ 68 ?(so/i^)=^+^...e5ist. 

69 69 y...you. 

69 70 z = § ( = ]Sro. 59) =rzh...zone, hag, 

zho. 
69-60 71 zrrrzh {=^0. 72)...azure. 
60 . 72 zh=z (=Xo. 71)... azure. 



SPELLING. 



INTRODUCTION. 



It cannot be denied that the orthography of the 
English language is a difficult one. In a general way 
there are no principles governing it ; but a very few 
rules can be called to mind and these have so many 
exceptions that we are uncertain about orthography. 

There are only three rules that I have found of 
practical value : 

1. *' Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant before an 
addition beginning with a vowel." 

2. " The diphthong * ei' usually follows * c,' while 
its companion * ie ' is generally used after other con- 
sonants." 

3. Words ending in final " y," preceded by a vowel 
form their plurals by adding " s*." It will be seen at 
once that English spelling must be learned to a great 
extent arbitrarily ; but a little industry and attention 
will enable any student to master it. 

Results IJd satisfactory. 

Everybody knows how imperfectly spelling accom- 
plishes its purpose ; there is no reason why any 



TINS A TISFA GTOB Y EES TIL TS. 61 

student should habitually spell words badly. Any 
person may learn to spell. 

No teacher of spelling is necessary or useful to 
persons who can read and write. If the student 
would learn to spell words let him use words. Let 
him write every day ; and in writing, whenever he 
shall come to a word which he does not certainly 
know how to spell, let him look for it in his diction- 
ary and study its spelling and meaning. 

Mechanical Spelling. 

Too often the spelling is a mere " parrot exercise," 
in that its results are rapidly lost as soon as the atten- 
tion is given to something else. Inattention is a fruit- 
ful source of ill spelling. Time is wasted upon oral 
spelling, and bad habits are formed by spelling new 
words pupils do not understand. 

Combination of. Spelling* 

I should connect spelling and reading with writing 
from the very outset. As soon as the child can pro- 
nounce the alphabet on this plan he will be able to 
write it, and then as he advances he must continue 
to write all the spelling lessons and as much of the 
reading lessons as time will admit. It is a rare thing 
to find children seven years old able to read a word 
of manuscript, — much less to write well. A little 
instruction given by the teacher each day upon this 
special study, will make the children good penman 
in a few week's time. This is not an impossibility- 
teachers, try it. It is a very valuable pelp. 



62 



SPJSLLING, 



During the past year I have pronounced the fol- 
lowing words to twenty-one Institutes in the State of 
New York, viz: 

accordion, melodeon, alpaca, 

beefsteak, billiards, caterpillar, 

diphtheria, harelip, surcingle, 

occurrence, inflammatory, succotash, 

tranquillity, exaggerate, vaccinate, 

centennial, brilliancy, collision, 

dissipate, tyrannical, valleys, 

lilies, numskull, primer, 

erysipelas. 
The average spelling of the teachers, including 
public school, union school, academy and normal 
school teachers is sixty-three per cent. One county 
stood at eighty-five per cent, and one at twenty per 
cent. Only three teachers from the twenty-oue 
counties spelling all the words correctly. 

The following list has been given at institutes, 
with similar results: 

Judgment, infringement, abridgment,, acknowl- 
edgment, tranquillity, dissyllable, bilious, lilies, 
eying, vying, halos, inseparable, privilege, licentiate, 
conscientious, intercede, supersede, sacrilegious, in- 
flammation, quizzical, contrariwise, mucilage, mil- 
lenium, metallic. 

Oral Spelling. 

I. Directions. 
I. Require the pupil to pronoujtce the — ■ 

(a) Word accurately before spelling. 

(b) Letters accurately. 



DIRECTIONS AND CAUTIONS. 63 

(c) Syllables accurately. 

(d) Word accurately after spelling. 

(e) Words of the succeeding lesson ac- 
curately before study, 

(f) Require the pupil to name every 

thing necessary to the correct writ- 
ing or printing of the word, as the 
capital letter, hyphen, apostrophe, etc. 

(g) Require the pupils to copy the words 

of the succeeding lesson several 
times before spelling. 

2. Let every fifth exercise be a review. 

3. Require misspelled words to be writ- 
ten correctly. 

4. Review often and advance slowly. 

II. Cautions. 
I. The teacher should — 

(a) Pronounce the word only once. 

(b) Never repeat a syllable. 

(c) Not permit the pupil to repeat a 

syllable. 

(d) Require pupils to divide one syll- 

able from another by a pause. 

(e) Give no undue emphasis 07t unaC' 
cented syllables. 



64 SPELLING. 



(f) Not permit the pupil to try the 
second time on a word. 

(g) Explain new words. 

III. Eesults. 

1. The correct spelling of words. 

2. The correct pronunciation of words. 
Remarks — In teaching Spelling, the instructor 

should aim to give interest to the exercise by fre- 
quently varj'ing the mode of recitation. But what- 
ever course is pursued, the following directions 
should be strictly adhered to : 

a. That the word should be pronounced distinctly; 
just as it would be pronounced by a good reader or 
a good speaker. In giving out the words to a class, 
teachers sometimes commit the error of parting from 
the ordinary pronounciation, for the sake of in. 
dicating the orthography. No undue emphasis or 
pi'olongation of the utterance of a syllable should be 
given by the teacher. 

b. That the pupil should spell once only on a word; 
as all beyond will be merely guessing. 

For employment between recitations the children 
should be permitted and encouraged, and required 
and compelled, to write all the exercises they read or 
spell upon their slates. 

Importance of Written Spelling. 

The best way to study a spelling lesson is to require 
the pupils to write it several times on their slates. 
The practice of requiring pupils to study the lesson 



WRITTEN SPELLING. 65 

a given Dumber of times, only teaches them to hurry 
over their study, and not to study to any purpose. 

It is not the number of times a lesson has been 
studied that should be considered the mark of effort, 
but the ability to spell every word in the lesson. 

Importance of Teaching Writing. 

There is no reason why every child in every school 
should not be a good penman at a very early age. 

The advantage of this acquisition to the children 
cannot be overrated ; for, besides the mechanical 
skill, the child has the means of constant employ- 
ment which will keep him from idleness and mis- 
chief, and the live teacher can make this skill bear 
upon almost every exercise in other branches of in- 
struction. 

Written Spelling* 

L Directions. 

1. Preparation for the lesson. 

{a) Pronounce the word accurately. 

(&) Use it in the construction of a sentence. 

(c) Define it. 

{d) Write a sentence containing it. 

2. Materials — Book, pen and ink. 

3. Require the pupils to write the word neatly, as 
soon as pronounced. 

4. At the close of the written exercise, the teacher, 
or some pupil, should spell the word orally. 

5. The pupil should check the misspelled words. 

6. Every misspelled word, and word omitted, should 
be written correctly in the Appendix, with its num- 
ber and the number of the column. 



66 SPELLING. 



7. All blanks, letters or words erased, inserted, 
written over, or written indistinctly, should be con- 
sidered as errors. 

8. The teacher should examine the pupil's work, 
and keep a record of the scholarship. 

9. Begin all words with small letters, except proper 

names. 

IT, Cautions. 

1. The teacher should give sufficient time to the 
exercise. 

2. The direction number eight must be adhered to 
strictly ; any violation will be counted the same as a 
misspelled word. 

3. If words are found unchecked, they should be 
marked with a cipher. 

4. Every word which the student checks for him. 
self will deduct one ; every word checked with a 
cipher will deduct five ; any correction whatever 
made in the column will deduct ten. 

Remarks. — "The old adage, 'Eyes are better than 
ears,' nowhere holds good with greater force than in 
learning to spell." Familiarity with words as written, 
such as will give the knowledge of all the letters and 
their proper position, is necessary to the power of 
writing them correctly. Such familiarity is obtained 
only from frequently seeing or writing them. The 
only way to produce words accurately is to make 
them familiar to the eye ; hence the well-known fact 
that persons who read much, as compositors, or write 
much, as copyists, invariably spell correctly ; hence 
also the common practice, when people ai'e in doubt 



ORAL SPELLING. 67 



between two forms of words, to write them both, 
when the eye instantly decides on the right thing. 

Value ot Oral Spelling. 

Spelling is the right formation of words with their 
proper letters. Spelling is either oral or written. 
Oral spelling does not give the ability to write words 
correctly ; but it must not from this fact be deemed a 
useless exercise. Long used as a basis of learning to 
read, and still clung to by many, notwithstanding 
the discovery of a better method, there must be 
something in it. It has already been shown that its 
special claim of giving the learner the powers of the 
letters, so that he may pronounce new words for 
himself cannot be allowed. What it did do, was to 
make familiar to the ear words that otherwise would 
have been altogether strange, and sufficiently distin- 
guishable by the eye to enable the learner to recog- 
nize them again when met with in his reading lessons. 
Other reasons may be assigned for the tenacity with 
which the old practice of setting spelling lessons 
has been clung to. It found favor with parents 
as furnishing some school work at home. And it 
found favor with teachers, as giving the only means 
with the younger children, or with the very poor, of 
forming those habits of attention, application, perse- 
verance and retention which are the characteristic 
features of a system of tasks. 

Discovery of Mistakes. 

The detection of every mistake with least loss of 
time is of the first importance. Careful examination 



68 SPELLING. 



of each slate by the teacher is most likely to secure 
this, but it is open to the fatal objection that it occu- 
pies much time and leaves the class idle. In some 
schools monitors are appointed to examine the slates 
and to correct the mistakes. This, apart from the 
diflQculty of getting properly qualified monitors, is 
objectionable, as yielding the monitors no adequate 
return for their long and irksome task, to which must 
be added the possibility of unfaithfulness. The plan 
of allowing the children to inspect each other's slates 
is open to serious objections, not the least of which is 
the distrust it seems to imply. Sometimes the chil- 
dren compare their slates with the lesson in the book, 
or written on the black-board: a plan which has the 
advantages of throwing the labor on the child, and 
of having the corrections made at the same time, all 
iLat is needed being a vigilant oversight, to see that it 
is faithfully done. But the method which to our 
mind is the best, is to dictate but one or two senten- 
ces, and then to have each sentence spelled through, 
either by the teachers or by the scholars in turn, every 
mistake being underlined. 

Corrections. 

The correction of mistakes should appeal to the 
eye, not to the ear. Pains should be taken to ascer- 
tain the cause of any common defect. For this pur- 
pose the word should be written on the black-board, 
and alongside of it the correct form; the two should 
be compared, and the cause of the mistake discov- 
ered. Often this will be a lesson on tlie structure of 
a class of words, and probably prevent similar mis- 



METHODS. 69 



takes afterwards. After this has been done, the whole 
class should write the word in its correct form, and 
then the words should be dictated afresh; if any 
now have mistakes, they should be required to write 
the words three or six times, according to the degree 
of carelessness shown. Sometimes it may be well to 
direct the children themselves to write correctly the 
words they have underlined, this making them atten- 
tive while the words are being spelled. But, as a gen- 
eral thing, this is open to the objection that it ap- 
peals to the eye, and that it does not occupy the chil- 
dren who have spelled all correctly. 

Methods in Spelling. 

/. Constructive Method. 

1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 
(a) To name a few familiar words. 
(6) To construct with block or card letters, 
(c) To spell the words by the sound of the letters. 
(dJ) To copy the words on their slates. 
(e) To tell the silent letters. 
(/) To spell the words by the name of the letters. 
ig) To use each word correctly in a sentence. 

II. Objective Method. 
1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 
{a) To bring to school a number of objects of the 

same kind. 
(J) To examine them carefully, 
(c) To name the parts. 
{d) To spell and write the words. 
(«) To tell the uses of the parts. 



70 SPELLING. 

(/) To introduce the word into a sentence. 
ig) To name the properties of the parts. 
(h) To write a short composition, reproducing 
the words. 

General Plan* 

I. Object. 

II. General properties. 

III. Parts. 

IV. Properties of parts. 
V. Uses of parts. 

VI. General uses. 

Different Methods oi Spelling. 

First Method, 

Spelling and defining. 

1. Assign an object to every pupil. 

2. Pupils find the meaning. 

3. Pupils name the parts, qualities, uses, etc. 

4. Write a short composition, reproducing the 

words. 

Second Method. 

1. Teacher write a certain number of words on the 
board, requiring the pupils to copy. 

2. The pupils learn to define them. 

3. The pupils use them in composition of a sen- 
tence. 

Thud Method. 

1. Require the pupils to spell the names of : — 

(a) Countries. 

(b) States. 

(c) Counties. 
{d) Cities. 



METHODS, 71 



{e) Towns. 

(/) Divisions of Land. 

{g) Divisions of Water. 

(h) Classes of Objects. 

ii) Occupations. 

(.;■) Animals, Minerals, etc. 

{k) Trees. 

(0 Fruits. 

(m) Flowers. 

{n) Vegetables. 

Fourth Method. — Dictation. 

1. The teacher should have a Dictation Exercise 
once a week. 

2. Dictate complete statements to the pupils. 

I. The Direction of the above Exercise. 

1. "Write your full name on the paper; punctuate 
it. 

2. Number the sentences. 

3. Construct every letter accurately. 

4. No erasures of letters or words. 

5. No insertion of letters or words. 

6. No writing over of letters or words. 

7. No prompting 

8. Use capital letters correctly. 

9. Use punctuation marks correctly. 

10. Cross the '' t's" and dot the " i's." 

{a) Teacher or pupil write the correct form on 

the board. 
(6) Those who make mistakes in spelling, or in 

any of the directions, should be required to 

correct them. 



72 SPELLING. 



{c Teacker should carefully examine the papers. 

{d) Find the per cent. 
Remarks. — However thorough the drill in spelling 
may be from the lessons of the speller and reader, 
every teacher should have frequent and copious ex- 
ercises in spelling words from other sources. These 
should be words in common use, chosen as far as 
possible from the range of the pupil's observation, 
including the new words that arise in object lessons, 
in geography, arithmetic and grammar. The more 
difficult of these words should be wrttten in columns 
on the board, and studied and reviewed with the 
same care as lessons from the speller and reader. 
Failures in spelling these words should be marked 
as errors, the same as failures in any other lessons. 

Various Modes of Conducting Exercises in 
Spelling. 

1. Read a short sentence distinctly, and require 
every word to be spelled by the class, — the first 
pupil pronouncing and spelling the first word, the 
next pupil the second, and so on until all the words 
in the sentence have been spelled. (An excellent 
exercise ; it demands attention.) 

2. It will be well in oral spelling to make all the 
members of the class responsible for the accurate 
spelling of each and every word. 

If the first member of the class misspells the word 
given toj him, let the teacher proceed and give out 
the next word, without intimating whether the first 
word was correctly or incorrectly spelled. 

If the second pupil thinks the first word was not 



STUDY DIFFICULT WOBDS. 73 

spelled correctly, he will spell it instead of the one 
given to him, and so on through the class, each being 
expected to correct any error that may have been 
committed. If the first pupil spells a word incor- 
rectly, and no one corrects it, let all be charged with 
a failure. This mode will amp'y compensate for its 
frequent adoption. 

Require Study on the Difficult Words. 

Two-thirds of the words in the English language 
need but little study. The remainder can be mastered 
only by study. The pupils should be urged to study 
the difficult words. 

3. Another mode of conducting the exercise of 
spelling is the following, and we may add that for 
more advanced schools it possesses some advantages : 

Let the teacher write legibly on the board twenty 
or more difficult words, and allow them to remain 
long enough to be carefully studied by the school. 
A few minutes before the exercise let all the words 
be erased from the board. Let each pupil provide 
himself with a slip of paper, following the order as 
directed in the previous exercises. The teacher will 
pronounce the words and the pupils will write them. 

After the words have been written, let the slips be 
collected and taken by the teacher, who may him- 
self — aided by some of the pupils — examine the 
slips, and mark the words spelled incorrectly. Sub- 
sequently, let the teacher read the result to the whole 
school, stating the number of errors committed by 
the several pupils ; after which the papers may be 
returned for correction. If there is a good board in 
the room, a few pupils should write the lesson on it. 



74 SPELLING. 



4. An attractive mode, which may answer for oral 
or written spelling, is the following : 

The instructor pronounces a word which is to 
be spelled by the first in the class, who will name 
immediately another, commencing with the final 
letter of the first word which is to be spelled by the 
next pupil ; and he in turn will name another word, 
and so on through the class. It will awaken thought 
and interest. 

5. Another mode which has its advantages is the 
following : 

Let the teacher dictate some twenty or twenty-five 
words to the class, requiring the members to write 
them on their slates. These words are to be care- 
fully examined and studied by the pupils, who are 
also to be required to incorporate each word in a 
sentence, which shall illustrate its meaning and show 
that it is understood by them. 

After these sentences have been read and erased 
from the slates, let the words be dictated again, to be 
written and examined with special reference to the 
orthography. 

The teacher should keep a copy of all words dictated 
to the pupils and hold them responsible for the cor- 
rect spelling in review. 

Importance of Spelling. 

Teachers should give close attention to this impor- 
tant subject, for truly it has been said, '* To spell 
one's own language well is no great credit to him for 
he ought to do it ; but to spell it ill is a disgrace, be- 
cause it indicates extremely poor attention and loose 



ITS IMPORTANCE. 75 

scholarship." We have a great number of spelling- 
books, grammars, and other aids, but with all these, 
poor spellers greatly abound. 

One cause of the frequency of poor spelling may 
be found in the neglect with which the spelling 
lesson is treated in schools. It is often crowded 
into a few minutes and passed over in a very hurried 
and imperfect manner, and if any exercise must be 
omitted the spelling lesson is the neglected one. 
Another cause may be found in a feeling, not very 
uncomjnon, that spelling is undeserving the atten- 
tion of any but very young pupils. 

From the beginning let your pupils understand 
that the spelling lesson will always receive its due 
share of atention, and its due time. Hold your 
pupils responsible for the correct spelling of every 
word at the regular recitation and upon reviews. 

As soon as the pupils can write, which, in a well- 
conducted school, is about as soon as they can read, 
special instruction in spelling with script letters 
should be introduced, and children should be re- 
quired to write and to spell orally every word in 
their reading, and in all other lessons. If accuracy 
and neatness in every particular be required, habits 
of careful attention will be formed. 

The child must be taught to spell correctly, before 
twelve years old, as this habit is seldom acquired 
after that age. 

Spelling Used only in Printing and Writing. 

A good speller is one who habitually gives the 
correct form to every word in his written exercises. 



re SPELLING. 



It is only in printed and "written language that cor- 
rect spelling possesses any value. Oral spelling is 
not a test of accuracy. It is impossible to memorize 
by their letters all the words in our language. If we 
wish to make pupils excellent spellers, we must 
cultivate the powers of observation and memory. If 
habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are allowed to 
be formed in childhood, no ordinary efforts in after 
life can overcome the defects or supply the deficien- 
cies that result from such bad habits. 

General Rules for Spelling. 

Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthogra- 
phy and signification. 

Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 

Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

Remarks. — Rules for spelling are of but little use 
in primary classes, or in fact in any classes. It may 
be well to memorize them, as they may prove of a 
little use in spelling of derivatives. 

Exercise in Orthoepy 

1. sacrifice, 6. torrid, 

2. memoriter, 7. often, 

3. pedagogy, 8. pretty, 

4. equable, 9. finance, 

5. truths, 10. mercy. 
Exercise in Orthoepy, with Diacritical Marks* 

1. sac'rHlce, 6. tSr'id, 

2. memor'iter, 7. 6f'ten, 

3. p6d'agogy, 8. pret'ty, 

4. 5'quable, 9. flnSnge, 

5. truths, 10. mer'cy. 



RULES AND EXERCISES. 77 

Note. — The teacher should write these words ou 
the board, and let the pupils pronounce them. 

Exercise in Orthoepy. 

1. finale, 6. inquiry, 

2. apparatus, 7. employe, 

B. orotund, 8. condolence, 

4. lugular, 9. dessert, 

5. enervate, 10. pronunciation. 

Same Words with Diacritical Marks 

1. finale, 6. Jnqui'ry, 

2. appara'tus, 7. Employe, 

3. S'rotund, 8. condolence, 

4. iQ'gular, 9. dessert', 

5. 5n5r'vate, 10. pronunciation. 

Exercises in Orthoepy. 

1. aye 6. acclimate, 

3. area, 7. apparent, 

3. almond, 8. aspirant, 

4. alias, 9. allopathy, 

5. arctic, 10. albumen. 

Same Words with Diacritical MarkSs 



1. 


a'ye. 


6. 


accli'mate, 


2. 


a'rea, 


7. 


appar'ent. 


3. 


almond, 


8. 


Ssptr'ant, 


4. 


alias, 


9. 


allop'athy. 


5. 


Arc'tic, 


10. 


Slbu'men. 



78 SPELLING. 



Exercise in Orthoepy. 

1. Appalachian, 6. Colorado, 

2. Am'azon, 7. Cobo'es, 

3. New Or'leans, 8. Virgi'nia, 

4. New'foundland, 9. Arkan'sas, 

5. Shawan'gunk, 10. Ausa'ble. 

Remarks — " Exactness in articulation cannot exist 
without close discrimination and careful analysis." 
The preceding exercises on the correct pronunciation 
of words should receive attention. It would be well 
for the teacher to write on the board a list of words 
pronounced incorrectly by the pupils, and require the 
pupils to correct them. 

Inquiries are made so frequently about books for 
written spelling that it is thought best to give the 
names of some of the books and publishers. Any 
of them may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
Syracuse, N. Y. 

Patterson's Exercise Book — Small 25 cts., large 50 
cts. ; Sheldon & Co , New York. 

Sherwood's Written Speller — 12 cts. ; George Sher- 
wood & Co., Chicago, 111. 

The Bulletin Blank Speller, prepared by Henry B. 
Buckham, Principal Buffalo State Normal School — 
15 cts. each, $10.00 per hundred ; Davis, Bardeen & 
Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 



PENMANSHIP. 



INTRODUCTION 



But little need be said on this subject, for the 
reason that the authors of the various systems of 
penmanship have placed before the public "Hand- 
Books" on the subject, so that teachers may qualify 
themselves to teach it. A moment's reflection will 
suflSce to convince any one of the importance of this 
art ; it is intimately connected with all the commer- 
cial and social relations of life. 

When we reflect that a brief practice, a few months 
at the farthest, under a competent instructor, will 
enable even a child to command and use this noted 
instrument, I would ask, is it not a shame that 
pupils frequently leave school at the age of twelve 
years unable to write even a tolerable hand ? Writing 
is virtually ignored as a branch of study in a majority 
of our common schools. It should not be placed in 
the background : rather in the foreground of our 
educational work. Writing is the complement of 
Drawing, and both these are complements of Reading. 
In our best schools pupils are taught to write the first 
year. 

Writing, as a medium for communicating thought, 
is almost as important as speaking. Scrawls that 



80 PENMANSmP. 

cannot be read may be compared to talking that can 
not be understood. If the teachers would attain 
excellence in Penmanship they must master the 
principles and faithfully practise them. Writing 
cannot be thoroughly taught by imitation; it must be 
made a study for a few months' time, and then all the 
difficulties will be removed. We have seen hundreds 
of teachers who could not tell what kind of lines 
were used in making the letter " n." Good penman- 
ship should be exacted as a qualification of our public 
school teachers. 

As a general rule teachers dislike to teach writing 
because they do not know how. Let the teachers of 
our public schools learn to write and at the same 
time learn to teach the art. Children like to write, 
never need urging when the instruction is imparted 
profitably and correctly. One year at school with 
the qualified teacher would enable every pupil to 
write a plain hand We hope the brief instruction 
on this subject will pay good interest on the time 
expended on its study. 

Penmanship. 

f 1. Left side. 

1. Position. - \ I 5l°St-oblique. 
[4. Eight side. 

n. Finger. 
n. Movement. | F-a- 
L4. Whole-arm. 



POINTS TO BE OBSERVED. 



81 



III. Lines. 



IV. Slant. 



V. Space. 



ri. Base-line. 
J 2. Head-line. 
1 3. Intermediate-line. 
( 4. Top-line. 



U: 



Main-slant. 
Connective-slant. 



1. Height. 
3 Width. 
3 Length. 



ri. Slants. -J 



Main. 



VI. COflStmCtiOn. ] 2. Angles, -j [g ^ower, 
d. ±urns.-j^^^ Upper. 



2 Oonnpf tivfi i ^^ ^^^W, curve. 
^. connective -^2 Left curve. 



1. Small. 



VII. Form. 



1. Short, (thirteen,) 

2 Semi-extended, (four.) 

3. Extended or loop,(ni]ie) 



2. Capital. — Three Classes. 



' 1. Straight line. 

2. Right curve. 

3. Left curve. 
VIII. Principles. -| 4. Extended loop. 

5. Direct oval. 

6. Reversed oval. 

7. Capital stem. 



IX. Spacing. 



'1. Between letters, one and one- 
fourth spaces; except a, d^ g and 
g, two spaces. 
2. Between words, one and one- 
half spaces. 

,3. Between sentences, two spaces. 



82 



PENMANSHIP. 



' 1. Count one on the first stroke, two 
on the second, and so on, until 
the last stroke ; then repeat one. 
X. Counting. { 3. Count one on the combination ; 
and one at the end of a word. 
. In writing a copy, pronounce 
the word before counting. 



XL Shading. ■{ Five different fwins. 



XII. Requisites. 



1. Good teaching. 

2. Good copy. 

3. Good desk. 
4 Good paper. 

5. Good pens. 

6. Good pen-holder& 

7. Good ink. 
a Blotter. 

9. Pen-wiper. 

10. Practice paper. 

11. Blackboard. 

12. Covers. 



XIII. Opening. - 



1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 



Position. 
Adjust book. 
Find copy. 
Adjust arms. 
Open inkstand. 
Take pens. 
Take ink. 
Ready. 
Write. 
Count. 



POINTS TO RE OBSERVED. 83 

' 1 . Wipe pens. 

2. Pass pens. 

3. Position. 

XIV. Closing J t* glos^i^l^st^^d. 
^ ) 5. Pass pen-wiper. 

6. Close books. 

7. Pass books. 
^8. Position. 

PenmaDship* 

I. Directions. 

1. Construct and illustrate the letters on the board. 

2. Give instruction and practice on individual 
letters. 

3. Teach writing as a simultaneous exercise. 

4. Require the pupils to — 

{a) Analyze the letters ; first, in concert, with the 

elements ; second, with the principles. 
(&) Analyze the letters with precise language 

before execution, 
(c) Write slowly in the beginning. 
id) Write on the board daily. 
{e) Write without lifting the pen from the 

paper. 
(/) Write with the slate-pencil in the beginning. 

Pass an oral examination weekly ; written 

examination monthly. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Teach and train the pupils to know. 

2. Teach and train the pupils to execute. 

3. Teach and train the pupils to criticise. 

4. Teach and train the pupils to correct. 



84 


PENMANSHIP, 


1. Legibility. 

2. Beauty. 

3. Rapidity. 


III. Results. 

1. Accuracy. 

^ . 3. Symmetry. 
' 1 3. Uniformity. 
4. Neatness. 



Position. 

The position of the body is of great importance to 
correctness and freedom of execution. We should 
first teach the correct position of the body, arms, 
hands and feet, and absolutely insist that every pupil 
shall sit in this manner unless prevented by some 
physical deformity. Teachers sometimes make a 
great mistake ; they show the proper position but 
neglect to insist upon it. 

Whatever the position, the pupils should learn to 
sit easily upright and keep the shoulders square. 
Left Position. 

Sit with the left side making an angle of forty-five 
degrees with the desk ; place the book nearly square 
with the desk a little to the right of the body. 

This position is the most tavorable for writing on 
large books. 

Front Position 

Sit directly facing the desk, near to it, with the 
feet level on the floor, and the fore-arms resting 
slightly on the desk in front, at right angles to each 
other. The right arm should rest Mghtly on the edge 
of the desk, on the muscles below the elbow. Adjust 
the book so that the right arm will be at right angles 
to the lines on which you are to write. 



MAEK TEE POSITION, 86 

BigM-OUique. 
The Eight-Oblique position varies from the full 
right position in having the right side but partially 
turned toward the desk, and the arms and book 
placed obliquely on the desk. 

Bight Position. 

Turn the right side near to the desk but not in 
contact with it ; keep the body erect, the feet level 
on the floor ; place the right arm parallel to the edge 
of the desk, resting on the muscle just forward of the 
elbow. Let the left hand be at right angles to the 
right and resting on the book, keeping it parallel 
with the edge of the book. 

Movement. 

In writing, the instruments used are the pen- 
fingers, the fore-arm and the whole arm movements. 
A free, easy movement produces a graceful line, 
while a stifl", cramped one produces a rough, irregular 
line. The training of the muscles of the arm and 
hand must be attended to by the teacher. In the 
first attempts at writing, the muscles may not prop- 
erly perform what the mind directs ; but by frequent 
and careful practice they are rendered obedient to 
the will. So important is this training that some 
authors institute tracing exercises to educate the 
hand to regular movements. 

Finger Movement. 

This movement is made by the extension and re- 
traction of the pen-flngers and the thumb, and it is 



86 PENMANSHIP. 



chiefly used in making the upward and downward 
strokes. It is used mainly in making single letters. 
This movement and its exact position should be 
carefully taught. 

Fore-Arm Movement, 

This movement is made by resting the arm on the 
muscles below the elbow,— that is, the muscles be- 
low the elbow are used as the centre of motion, 
giving a lateral movement. It may be employed in 
making strokes in any direction. 

Combined Movement. 

This movement consists in the united action of the 
fore-arm, hand and fingers, the fore-arm acting on 
its muscular rest as a centre. This movement an- 
swers the requirements of business use better than 
any other. 

Whole- Arm Movement. 

The whole-arm movement consists in the use of 

the whole-arm from the shoulder, the elbow being 

raised slightly from the desk. This movement is 

mainly used for striking large capitals. For practice 

it is highly beneficial, giving steadiness and ease to 

the movement. 

Lines. 

Writing is the complement of Drawing. It is 

supposed that instruction has been given upon simple 

geometrical lines. 

Base Line. 

The horizontal line on which the writing rests, is 
called the Base Line. 



TECHNICAL TERMS. 87 

Head Line* 

The horizontal line to which the small letter ex- 
tend, is called the Head Line. 

Intermediate Line. 

The horizontal line to which the semi-extended 
letters reach, is called the Intermediate Lin£. 

Top liine. 

The horizontal line to which the loop or extended 
letters extend, is called the Top Line. 

Slants* 

A straight line standing to the right of a vertickl, 
forming an angle of 53 degrees with the horizontal, 
eives the Main Slant. 

Connective Slants* 

Curves which connect straight lines in small 
letters are made on an angle of 30 degrees, and 
called the Connectiw Slant. 

Space* 

Heiglit, 

The unit for measuring the height of letters is the 
small letter '* * " without the dot, both for small and 
capital letters, and is called a space. 

Width, 

The unit for measuring the width of letters is l)ie 
dislance between the two slanting straiglit lines in the 
small letter "w" taken horizontally, ai)4 is caljeil ^ 
space. 



88 FKVMAIf^SmP. 



Length. 

The length of the letter, taking '* j" for the stand- 
ard, is a trifle greater than the width. 

Construction. 

The construction of a letter is to tell the height, 
width, angles, turns and slant. 

Angles. 

The angle is formed by a straight line meeting a 
curved line. 

Turns. 

The turn is formed by a curve line meeting a 
straight line ; it should be made as short as possible, 
without making an angle. 

Form — {STuall Letters.) 
The short letters are — 

Cj a^j oAj n^ m, ^i/^ a^ a^ cc^ e^ c^ ^^ «/. 

The semi-extended letters are — 
The extended or loop letters are — 

Capital Letters. 
Capital letters are divided into three classes : 



First class — 



^. ^. m, ^. 



PBINCIPLE8, 89 



Second class — 
Third class — 

©< ©4: (3#. ^(^ cC ^ 

Principles. 

1. A straight line on the main slant, is the First 
Principle. 

2. A right curve, usually on the connective slant, 
is the Second Principle. 

3. A left curve, usually on the connective slant, is 
the Third Principle, 

4. A loop upon the main slant, is the Fourth 
Principle. 

5. A direct oval or capital O, is the Fifth Principle. 

6. A reversed oval upon the main slant, is the SixiJi 
Principle. 

7. The capital stem is the Seventh Principle. 

Spacing. 

The spacing should be carefully watched in writ- 
ing ; nothing adds more beauty to writiog than uni- 
form and correct spacing. 

Counting. 

To keep the members of the class together and 
produce a steady and uniform movement, it is nec- 
essary to apply time to the movements of the pen 



90 PENMENSHIP. 



in writing. Some pupils move too rapidly, without 

taking pains to make the letters ; others move too 

slowly, with an irregular, tremulous motion. The 

best results have been attained by counting; we 

believe it to be the best and only way to teach pupils 

to write in a body. Directions are given in the 

tabulation. 

Shading 

This adds beauty to the writing, but it should be 
used very sparingly. Capital letters should be 
used very sparingly. Capital letters should be 
shaded, but it is not necessary to shade small letters. 

Requisites. 

In order to progress, pupils should be supplied 
with good materials. Nothing is gained by placing 
in children's hands poor materials. The blackboard 
should be used in every exercise. 

Opening. 

The same order and system should prevail in the 
exercises in writing as in any other, and all the pupils 
should be required to write during the exercise ; for 
any deficiency they should be instructed that it must 
be made up, the same as in any other recitation . 

Seldom do we see the whole school engaged in the 
writing exercise. Open and close the exercise care- 
fully ; have a system. 

General Remarks. — The pupils on their first 
entrance into the school-room, should be supplied 
with a slate ruled on one side: if not ruled the teacher 
should rule it The slate pencil should be long. 



SUGGESTIONS, 91 



Instruction should be given on Lines the first day, 
and the teacher should place the lines on the board 
and require the pupils to copy. After they retire to 
their seats, they should be requested to reproduce the 
work. This will give them employment, and lead 
to the mastery of penmanship in a very few months. 
Pupils should first be taught to make all the letters 
on their slates, and after they can make them readily 
they may then use the lead pencil and paper. Pen 
and ink should not be placed in their hands until 
they can make all the letters, both small and capital, 
readily and perfectly. 

All the exercises of the school require more or less 
writing, and the teacher should begin it at an early 
day. Some teach pupils to print at first ; while I do 
not think this to be the correct way, yet good results 
have been attained. Pupils can be taught to form 
the script characters as early as the printed. 

In the schools of Columbus, Ohio, St. Louis, Mo., 
New York and Brooklyn, and many other cities, the 
pupils are taught to write the first year. They have 
attained the most satisfactory results in spelling and 
in reading through the teaching of penmanship. 
"We know from experience in the school room that 
children under eight years of age can be made good 
penmen in one year's time. We would encourage 
teachers to try it; if at the end of the year you have 
not succeeded. Name yourself. 

Analysis of a Letter. 

i. — S'^e letter ^^i ^^ is one space in lieigJii 



92 PENMANSHIP. 



and two spaces in widtlij ccmposed of tJie 

right curve j main slant ^ and the riglU 

curve. 

Remarks. — The analysis above is all that is neces- 
sary at first, but a fuller one may be given after they 
understand the parts, as follows : 

i. — 3'he letter ^^i ^^ is one space in height 
and two spaces in width^ composed of the 
right curve^ upper angle^ main slant^ lower 

turn, and the right curve. 
Also it may be analyzed by principles, viz : 
i. — 3'he letter ^^ i^^ is composed of the 
second principle , first principle^ and the 
second principle. 

List of manuals on Penmanship. 

Key to Spencerian Penmanship — $1.50 ; Compen- 
dium of do., $1.75 ; Theory of do., 25 cts. ; Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. 

Manual of Penmanship — $1.25 ; Potter, Ainsworth 
& Co., New York. 

Hand-Book of Penmanship — 50 cts ; VanAntwerp, 
Bragg & Co., CincinnatL 



DRAWING. 



INTRODUCTION. 



How it ever came to pass that arithmetic should be 
taught to the extent attained in the public schools of 
the civilizd world, while geometry is almost wholly 
excluded from them, is a problem from which the 
author of this manual has often sought a solution, 
but with only this result, viz. : that arithmetic, being 
considered an elementary branch, is included in all 
systems of instruction ; but, geometry, being re. 
garded as a higher branch is reserved for systems of 
advanced education, and is, on that account, reached 
by but very few of the many who need it. 

The error here is fundamental. Instead of teach- 
ing the elements of all branches, we teach elementary 
branches much too exhaustively. The elements of 
Geometry are much easier to learn, and are of more 
value when learned, than advanced Arithmetic ; and, 
if A is to leave the school with merely a common 
school education, he would be much better prepared 
for the active duties of life with a little Arithmetic and 
some Geometry, than with more Arithmetic and no 
Geometry. 

Unthinking persons frequently assert that young 



94 DBA WING. 



children are incapable of reasoning, and that the 
truths of Geometry are too abstract in their nature to 
be apprehended by them. 

To these objections, it may be answered, that any 
ordinary child, five years of age, can deduce the con- 
clusion of a syllogism if he understands the terms con- 
tained in the propositions ; and that nothing can be 
more palapable to the mind of a child than forms, 
magnitudes, and directions. 

There are many teachers who imagine that the per- 
ceptive faculties of children should be cultivated ex. 
clumely in early youth, and that the reason should be 
addressed only at a later period. 

It is certainly true that perception should receive 
a larger share of attention than the other faculties 
during the first school years ; but it is equally certain 
that no faculty can be safely disregarded, even for a 
time. The root does not attain maturity before the 
stem appears ; neither does the stem attain its growth 
before its branches come forth to give birth in turn 
to leaves ; but root, stem and leaves are found simul- 
taneously in the youngest plant. 

That the reason may be profitably addressed 
through the medium of geometry at as early an age 
as seven years is asserted by no less an authority than 
President Hill of Harvard College, who says, in the 
preface to his admirable little geometry, that a child 
seven years old may be taught geometry more easily 
than one of fifteen. 

The author holds that this science should be taught 
In all primary and grammar schools, for the same 



GEOMETRY AND DBA WING. 9£ 

reasons that apply to all other branches. One of these 
reasons will be stated here, because it is not suflScient- 
ly recognized even by teachers. It is this : 

The prime object of school instruction is to place 
in the hands of the pupil the means of continuing his 
studies without aid after he leaves school. The man 
who is not a student of some part of God's works 
cannot be said to live a rational life. It is the proper 
business of the school to do for each branch of science 
exactly what is done for reading. 

Children are taught to read, not for the sake of 
what is contained in their readers, but that they may 
be able to read all through life, and thereby fulfil one 
or the requirements of civilized society. So, enough 
of each branch of science should be taught to enable 
the pupil to pursue it after leaving school. 

If this view is correct, it is wrong to allow a pupil 
to reach the age of fourteen years without knowing 
even the alphabet of Geometry. He should be taught 
at least how to read it. 

It certainly does se^m probable, that if the youth 
who now leave school with so much Arithmetic, and 
no Geometry, were taught the first rudiments of the 
science, thousands of them would be lead to the study 
of the higher mathematics in their mature years, by 
reasons of those attractions of Geometry which 
Arithmetic does not possess. 

The author would combine Geometry and Drawing, 
and make it purely a development exercise. But 
very little attention has been given to this subject in 
the schools of this country. It is one of the first 



96 DRAWINa. 



subjects that should receive attention in the primary 
classes. There is no subject that will produce such 
satisfactory results in so short a time as Drawing. 
It gives a good discipline to the mind, as it deals at 
first with geometrical terms, as lines, angles, circles, 
etc. It is an exercise well calculated to develop 
reason and judgment on the part of the pupils. The 
eye is trained to observe and compare objects ; and 
the hand is trained to execute. 

It should precede all the primary work in the 
school ; should be taught before reading, spelling, 
writing numbers, etc. It is the complement of writ- 
ing and map-drawing ; it is a source of endless amuse- 
ment and instruction. How much more quick and 
satisfactory is the process of delineating an object 
by drawing, than that of describing it by words. 
The requirement of this art necessitates also the right 
use of the faculties of sight, observation, imitative- 
ness and even conception. 

Precedence is always given to knowledge, and not 
to manual execution. The teacher who has at the 
end nothing to show but finely drawn lines, has given 
poor instruction. His class should be able to sustain 
a thorough examination, based on the principles of 
geometrical terms. It is expected that the teacher 
will thoroughly instruct the pupils in the methods of 
work, and in the definitions of terms, a thing that 
cannot be done without frequent review. 

Elementary Drawing, when taught in a rational, 
systematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of 
the most delightful things to teach to children. Like 



ISLEMENTABT DEFINTI0N8. 97 

other studies it must be made compulsory, and not 
be left to the decision of the teacher and pupil. 

There must be examinations and promotions, as in 
other branches. 

Satisfactory results in drawing are no more de- 
pendent upon special gilts on the part of pupils, 
than satisfactory results in arithmetic are dependent 
upon special mathematical gifts. It is only neces- 
sary that the pupils set about the study of drawing as 
they set about the study of arithmetic, geography or 
grammar. 

Elementary Definitions of Drawing. 

1. That which has position but no dimensions, is a 
Point. 

2. That which has length, but? neither breadth nor 
thickness, is a Line. 

8. A line that does not change its direction at any 
point, is a Straight Line; it indicates the shortest 
distance between two points. 

4. A line that changes its direction at every point, 
is a Curved Line. 

5 A line that changes its direction at some of its 
points, is a Broken Line. 

6. A straight line that points to the centre of the 
earth, is a Vertical Line 

7. A straight line that points to the horizon, is a 
Horizontal Line. 

8. A straight line that is neither vertical nor hor- 
izontal, is an Oblique Line. 

9. A line that bends regularly, and if continued, 
would form the circumference of a circle, is a Simple 
Curve. 



98 DBAWINa. 



10. A line composed of two or more simple curves, 
is a Compound Curve. 

11. A plane figure bounded by a compound curve 
struck from two centers, is an Ellipse. 

12. A line that is regular in all its parts is a Regu- 
lar Broken Line. 

13. A line that is irregular in some of all of its 
pai ts, is an Irregular Broken Line. 

14. Lines that extend in the same direction and 
whose opposite points are always the same distance 
from one another throughout their entire length, are 
Paralled Lines. 

15. Lines where the points are connected are Con- 
tinuous. 

16. Lines where the points are disconnected are 
Discontinuous. 

17. The difi'ereuce in the direction of two straight 
lines, is an Angle. 

18. An angle which is formed by the meeting of 
two straight lines perpendicular to each other, is a 
Right Angle. 

19. An angle which is less than a right angle, is an 
Acute Angle. 

20. An angle which is greater than a right angle, is 
an Obtuse Angle. 

21. A plane figure having three sides, is a Triangle. 

22. A triangle that has one right angle, is a !Sight- 
Angled Triangle. 

23. A triangle that has one obtuse angle, is an Ob- 
tuse-Angled Triangle. 

24. A triangle whose angles are all acute, is an 
Acute- Angled Triangle. 



ELEMENTABT DEFINITIONS. 99 

35. A triangle where the three sides are equal to 
each other, is an Equilateral Triangle. 

36 A triangle where the three sides are of unequal 
length, is a Scalene Triangle. 

27. A triangle where two of its sides are equal, is 
an Isosceles Triangle. 

38. A plane figure having four sides, is a Quad- 
rilateral. 

29. A quadrilateral that has no two sides parallel, 
is a Trapezium. 

30. A quadrilateral where only two sides are par- 
allel, is a Trapezoid. 

31. A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are par- 
allel, is a Parallelogram. 

32. A right-angled parallelogram, is a Rectangle. 

33. A parallelogram whose opposite sides are equal 
but which has no right angles, is a Rhomboid. 

34. A parallelogram with four equal sides, but the 
angles not right angles, is a Rhombus. 

35. A figure having four equal sides and four right 
angles, is a Square, or an Equilateral Rectangle. 

36. A figure that has four right angles, but only its 
opposite sides equal, is an Oblong. 

37. A plane figure bounded by a curved line, every 
part of which is equally distant from a point within 
called its centre, is a Circle. 

38. A straight line drawn from the centre to the 
circumference, is a Radius. 

39. A straight line drawn through the centre and 
touching the circumference on both sides, is the 
Diameter. 



100 



DBA WING. 



40. Lines drawn from side to side, passing through 
the centre, are the Diameters of a Square. 

41. Lines.connecting the opposite angles of a square 
are called the Diagonals of a Square, 

42. The straight line connecting the ends of a curve 
is the Base. 

43. The perpendicular distance from the base to 
the highest point of the curve is the Altitude. 

44. A straight line which touches the circumfer- 
ence of a circle at two points, but which is shorter 
than the diameter, is a Chord. 

45. Any part of the circumference of a circle is an 

Arc. 

Geometry.— Elementary Exercise. 

A. Point and Lines. 
I Point. 

a. Vertical. ] 

b. Horizontal. I 

c. Oblique, 

a. Simple. 

b. Compound. 

c. Elliptical. 

a. Regular. 

b. Irresular. 



1. Straight. 



II. Line. ^ 2 Curved. 



3. Broken 



I Parallel. 

I 

|- Continu- 

I [ous. 



Discon- 
J [tinuoua. 



B. Combination of Straight Lines. 



I. Angles. 



Right. 
Acute. 
Obtuse. 



Two lines. 



n 



n. Triangles. - 



Classified, i 1 
according I 2 
to sides, ( 3 
Classified ( 1 
according i 2 



Equilateral. ^ 
Scalene. | 

Isosceles. 
Right-angled. 
Acute-anded 



Three 
lines. 



to angles. ( 3. Obtuse-angled J 



MANVALS OF DEAWINa. 101 

fl. Trapezium. j 1. Square. ") 

III. OUaflri- J 2- Trapezoid. ( 1. Rectangle. ] 2. Oblong. 1 Four 
1'jtPrQlc 1 3. Parol'og'ms. ■< 3. Rhomboid. (lines, 

^^^^^^">* I 1 3. Rhombus. J 

All who produce good figures should be allowed 
to place them on the board. This will hint to others, 
and encourage all to do well enough to be allowed 
to draw on the board. Some of these figures the 
teacher gives to the class as dictation exercises, either 
in the present shape or modified. Figures should 
never be drawn less than an inch in size, and the 
pupil should take positions three or four feet away, 
to criticise his work. If the class is large, divide it 
into equal parts, and let one draw at the board each 
day, while the others draw on their slates. 

The teacher needs to study a Manual on Drawing, 
'n order to teach it thoroughly and successfully. 
Among others we would refer them to Krusi's 
Manuals of Drawing, Synthetic, Analytic and Per- 
spective, 75 cts. each, published by D. Appleton & 
Co., New York ; Smith's Manual, Primary $1.25, and 
Intermediate $2.50, published by L. Prang & Co., 
Boston ; Bartholomew's Manual $1.25, published by 
Potter, Ainsworth & Co., New York ; Mark's First 
Lessons in Geometry, 90 cts., published by Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co. , New York. 



Part i : LANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTORY 



They who feel an inward call to teach and en- 
lighten their countrymen, should deem it an import- 
ant part of their duty to draw out the stores of thought 
which are already latent in their native language, to 
purify it from the corruptions which time brings upon 
all things, to endeavor to give distinctness and pre- 
cision to whatever in it is confused, or obscure, or 
dimly seen. 

We do not wish to condemn the study of grammar ; 
emry teacher should understand it, and pupils who 
are able to digest the science and assimilate the 
knowledge should be encouraged to study it. But 
we believe that a majority of pupils have formed a 
distaste for the study of grammar, because it was in- 
troduced at top early an age. Lessons in Language 
should receive attention from the first ; but they should 
be free from all definitions, grammatical rules, analy- 
sis and parsing ; these only clog the memory and 
signify nothing but mere notions of general terms. 

Definitions and rules are results, and we should 
seek to attain these results by practical work through 
the study of the art of Language ; then, and not 



OBJECT OF LANG UA GE LESSONS. 103 

until then, shaU we arrive at a knowledge of their 
character and an appreciation of their usefulness. 

The Object to Teach Pupils to Speak and Write 
Correctly. 

The object of the study of grammar is " jH? teach th^ 
art of correct expression and the science of language.'' 
The study of our text book on grammar, does not as a 
rule, attain these results. Why ? Because grammar, 
proper, is the study of the science of language. 
Technical grammar belongs to the advanced course, 
and a majority of our pupils, who leave school before 
the age of twelve years, should pursue the study of 
language, which would be of use through life ; 
whereas the study of grammar will be of but little, 
if any, use. 

In Language we believe that the duty of preparing 
the soil, and planting the seed, is with the primary 
teacher. Correct sentences should always be used in 
the presence of the pupil ; if the teacher be careful in 
this direction, in no case using incorrect .language, 
the ear becomes accustomed to forms of expression, 
and the child will unconsciously acquire the correct 
forms. It cannot be learned by setting children to 
classifying, conjugating or declining. They must 
learn the art of language and through the art come up 
to the science. Language is a growth. It cannot be 
stereotyped. Language and thought have reciprocal 
influence. Right habits of language produce rlgnt 
thinking, and vice versa. The language of a person 
is a test and evidence of his thoughts and mental cul- 
ture. The chief cause of alarm is on account of the 



104 LANGUAGE. 



woful ignorance of English and the faulty use of our 
mother tongue among nominally intelligent and edu- 
cated people — even among teachers, who of all others 
should use pure language. The teacher is responsi- 
ble for the language of his pupils. 

Good Language— How Acqnired. 

We acquire language through imitation ; the 
pupil who has always heard good language, 
will use goo'l language ; his ability to use good lan- 
guage does not depend upon his knowledge of gram- 
mar, but upon his having heard good English, read 
good English and practised good English. Without 
further comment upon language, we would say, that 
whatever else may be omitted in teaching, — no teach&r 
can afford to dispense with the language exercise. 

"I had rather speak five words with my understanding, 
that by my voice I might teach others also, than a thous- 
and words in an unknown tongue." — I Cor. XIV : 19. 



FIRST LESSONS. 103 



LESSON I. 



L Directions. 

1. Ask the children to tell the names of the objects — 

a. In the school-room, the yard, the house, etc. 

b. Made of wood, iron, gold, wool, cotton, etc. 

c. Manufactured by the carpenter, moulder, etc. 

2. Ask the pupil to tell the names of the parts of 

things. 

3. To name some of the qualities of things. 

4. To tell the uses of things. 

IT, Cautions. 

1. Insist on correct articulation. 

2. Form correct ideas ; then insist on the intelligent 

use of the terms. 

3. Let every exercise bear upon the correct use of 

language. 

in Results. 

1. The command of language. 

2. The concise use of language. 

3. Increased mental power. 

REMARKS. 

The pupils at first will mention the names of things 
in the wildest confusion. The teacher listens patiently 
for a few seconds, then kindly bids them stop, and 
tells them to begin at a certain part of the room and 
to speak one at a time, and name things in order. 

In the answers constant attention must be paid to 
the pronunciation of words — distinct and correct artic- 
ulation being one of the first requisites of correct 
language. 



106 LANGUAGE. 



Yet this should not be insisted upon to such an 
extent, as to make it irksome to the pupils. The child 
can attain perfection only gradually, and the teacher 
should encourage but not drive. Indeed, the child 
needs no driving ; he will work cheerfully and zeal- 
ously with the leader who has learned the art of 
working with the child. 

As the names of objects are given by the children, 
the teacher should write these names in columns 
on the board, requiring the children to spell each 
word as it is written, assisting or correcting when 
necessary. 

Let the children say something about each object, 
the teacher helping them to determine how far the 
terms they apply are appropriate. 

The teacher should add to these descriptions the 
names, and lead the children on to the formation of 
simple statements in'their shortest form. 

Capital Letters and the Full Stop. 

In the written exercise, the children should be led 
to observe that each sentence begins with a capital 
letter, and ends with a period. The teacher will 
use JUDGMENT in the assignment of the directions in 
each lesson. 

The directions should be written on the board, one 
at a time, and the pupils requested to follow the 
directions, and read the statements from the slate. 
After an exercise has been carefvVy examined, the 
teacher should require the class to reproduce it. 

The children may be supplied with little books, in 
which to write out these lessons at home. For some 



PARTS OF OBJECTS. 107 

time they should not be required to originate any- 
thing for themselves, but merely to reproduce that 
"which has been taught in school. They will find 
pleasure in doing that which they can do well. 

When all the objects in the room have formed the 
subjects of such lessons, those in the play-ground, the 
street, or in the fields, may be resorted to, gradually 
extending the circle to more remote objects. 

At least a dozen lessons of this description should 

be given. 

Parts of Objects. 

After giving lessons on objects, the teacher will ask 
the pupils to name the parts of objects, and the num- 
ber of those parts. This is the second step in lan- 
guage. 

In these exercises^ the teacher should be careful not 
to let the children call that a part, which is mere- 
ly a property or an accident. A part of a materia] 
object is a portion of it; if the part is removed, the 
object will be diminished in size and ijoeight. It is 
improper, then, to consider as parts the lines and 
surfaces of objects. 

The exercises on the parts of objects should be 
varied in many ways, so as to arouse and maintain a 
lively interest in the pupils. 

For example — the parts of a pin are the Tiead^ shaft 
and point ; of a chair, legs, rounds, seat and hack. 

The first step to be taken in language is to obtain 
ideas. The second is the proper expression of the 
ideas when obtained. 

To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits 
of observation ; to use the eyes in noticing not only 



108 LANGUAGE. 



entire objects, but also their different parts ; to con- 
sider their qualities, uses, operations and effects ; 
together with their relations to other things. The 
mind employed in such processes acquires material 
for its own operations, and develops ideas and 
thoughts as it were spontaneously. 

For this exercise in language it is proposed that the 
children be required to enumerate the parts of some 
visible object, according to the following 

Example. 

A House. 
Its parts are : 

The stone, The sills, The plates, The ceiling, 
The mortar. The posts, The rafters. The floor. 
The joists, The doors. The shingles. 
The beams. The nails. The chimneys, 

Example. 

Glass, 
Its qualities : 

It is hard, inodorous, 

solid, colorless, 

smooth, heavy, 

bright, durable, 

transparent, inflexible, 

brittle, insoluble, 

cold, dry, 

tasteless, fusible, etc. 

Its uses : 
For windows to admit the light. 
For spectacles to assist the sight. 
For useful vessels, such as goblets, pitchers, bottles, 
phials, lamps, etc. 

Thus far we have endeavored to teach the subjects 
methodically, so as to teach the pupils the power of 



HAVE A DEFIIUTE FLAK 109 

rapid, complete^ and accurate observation, and to pre- 
pare them for concise, complete, and accurate descrip- 
tion. 

The teacher in order to give the children informa- 
tion on qualities of object?, so that they may form 
coronet impressions, should subject the object to more 
or less complicated experiments. The names of some 
of thejse qualities, e. g., compressibility, flexibility, 
etc., must be fully illustrated 

This exercise will furnish abundant opportunity for 
the energetic teacher to invent various means of enter- 
tainment and instruction. 

Interrogate the children closely upon the uses of 
objects, and require them to write short compositions 
about objects, to tell the name, parts, qualities and 
uses. 

The Teacher must have a Plan. 

The teacher must have a plan of presenting 
subjects. Experience daily proves that an unprepared 
lesson, or what may be termed extempore teaching is 
sure to be diffuse and indifierent ; besides the teacher 
must NEVER FAIL to enter the class well prepared, 
not only in regard to the object on which he intends 
to exercise his class, but upon the order in which 
the exercises are to be conducted, and upon the man- 
ner in which the individual pupils are to be interro- 
gated. He must himself have clear and distinct ideas, 
must observe accurately and think carefully, concisei^g 
and correctly. 

Without these requisites the teacher will fail iu 
language ; with them he will accomplish results foi 
which generations will thank him. 



no LANaUAOE. 



LESSON II. 



1. Direction}^. 

1 Give the children words similar in pronunciation, 
but different in spelling. 
2. Ask the children — 

a. To find the words in the spelling-book. 

b. To write all the words they know, that have 

the words mentioned in them. 

c. To make a spelling-lesson of the words named. 

d. To write statements, using the words named. 

e. To write a composition, using the statements. 

IT, Cautions. 

1. Require the children to answer, in full state- 

ments. 

2. Give constant attention to distinct articulation. 

3. Correct the common errors in pronunciation. 

4. Make the exercise 2}i^asant and instinctive. 

III. Results. 

1. The children will understand the meaning of 

words. 

2. They will learn correct simple expression. 

3. They will learn how to write and spell. 

An exact copy of a lesson given in the Primary 
Department of the State Normal School in Buffalo, 
New York, is here appended. 

The words for practice, heech and heach. List of 
words, given by the pupils : 

/. Beech. II. Beach. 

1. beech-tree, 1. sand-beach, 

2. beech-nut, 2. shell-beach, 



A NORMAL LESSON. Ill 



3. beech-leai, 


8. 


pebbly-beach, 


4. beech-wood, 


4. 


beach-timber, 


5. beech-root, 


5. 


Rye-beach, 


6. beech-twig, 


6. 


ocean-beach. 


7. beech-bark. 






8. beech-oil. 







Sentences. 

I. Beech; a tree. 

1. The heech-iree^ make a nice shade in summer. 
3. The heecli has a smooth green bark. 

3. The squirrel hides btech-nvXs, in his hole for win 
ter. 

4. Beech-y^ 006. snaps in the fire. 

II. Beach ; a sandy shore. 

1. Year before last we all went to 'Rye-beach in 
vacation. 

2. O, see the pretty pebbles I picked up on the 
beach! 

3. What fun it is to walk barefoot on the dry warm 
sand, down on the beach. 

III. Compositions. 

1. A beech-tree is a very large forest tree. It has 
little three-cornered beech-nuts on it. I was out in 
the country once and I saw very many little shells of 
the beech-nuts where the squirrels had been. The 
beech-wood snaps when you put it into the fire, and 
makes a very hot fire. 

2. I went down to the Beach one day and the sand 
was all smooth. I was on the Beach of Lake Mich- 
igan once and made little houses of the Beach pebbles 
in the sand. Rye Beach is where the people go to 
bathe in the summer. 

3. A squirrel is a animal that eats Beech-nuts. 
When you burn beech-wood it crackles and snaps all 
on the carpet like ashes. The beech-tree grows to be 
very large and when it is very large men go and chop 
them into wood the beech-nut is very good to eat I 
had some twice and they were good sometimes people 



112 LANGUAGE. 



get oil from the nuts ; beech leaves are good to chew 
they have a sour taste they are very good; beech nuta 
are big as the end of the finger they arc three-cornered 
the beech-nut tree grows in Europe and america. 

The last was written by the youngest girl in the 
class, aged eight. All are printed just as written. 
REMARKS. 

Children from eight to ten years of age may be able 
to do the work, if the teacher carefully follows a plan. 

The teacher should spell and pronounce the words, 
if the children cannot,and also tell their exact meaning 
and illustrate them, if possible ; try to draw a 
picture at the board, — an indifferent one is better 
than none. 

The object is to teach spelling, writing and correct 
simple expression. 

The exercise will not prove irksome^ but very 
pleasant and instructive. 

All erroneous expressions made use of by the chil- 
dren should be immediately corrected and the proper 
words FIXED upon the mind by repetition. 

In the daily work of the school-room, all definitions 
of the meaning of words, and all descriptions of 
places, objects, or events, whether given by the teacher 
to the children, or dieted from them, should be 
clothed in simple and definite language, and fixed in 
the memory by repetition. 

The children should be trained to give complete 
answers to all questions which are put to them. Ex- 
perience teaches that nothing more lends to make an 
idea clear to the mind, and to render it a permanent 
possession, thence the act of clothing it in accurate Ian/- 
guage. 



SUGGESTIONS. 113 



Monosyllabic answers, as *' yes " and " no " should 
be rejected, except when they express all that can be 
said on the subject. 

The value of such instruction has not hitherto been 
sufficiently appreciated, but it is hoped that these les- 
sons will show^ how suited it is to the youthful mind 
and calculated *o promote mental training. 



114 LANOVAOE. 



LESSON III. 



I. Directions, 

1. Hold an object before the pupils and ask them 
to say something about it. 

2. Place objects of the same kind in their hands, 
and let the pupils describe them ; first an oral, second a 
■written description. 

3. Let the pupil compare objects, and tell their dif- 
ferences, as paper and leather, lead and iron, wood 
and stone, etc. 

4. Let the pupils ascribe different qualities to one 
and the same object. 

5. Let the pupils ascribe the same quality to various 
objects. 

6. Let them apply many descriptive terms, appli- 
cable to various objects. 

7. Let them point out the value of each word and 
state what it adds to the description. 

II. Cautions. 

1. See that the children form correct ideas. 

2. Correct all impi^oper expressions. 

3. Fix the new word in the mind by frequent re- 
views. 

4. The teacher should assist the children in deter- 
mining the suitability of words, correcting when 
necessary. 

5. Encourage the children to reproduce lessons at 
home. 

III. Besults. 

1. To train the children to see. 

2. To teach them to cg^ipare. 

3. To train them to do. 

4. To train them to tell what they see and do. 



MAKING SENTENCES. 115 

REMARKS. 

The teaclier should require the pupils to answer in 
complete statements, and encourage them to examine 
the objects very carefully 

In the oral description let the children give the sjen- 
eral properties, as the form and color; then the parts, 
properties and uses. In the written description re- 
quire the work to be expressed neatly, giving atten- 
tion to spelling, writing, capital letters, and punctu- 
ation. 

The teacher will write the name of some familiar 
object on the board, and will call upon the children 
to apply to it various qualities, writing them as they 
give them. It may be necessary to assist the child- 
ren in determining the suitability of the qualities 
and also in spelling the more difficult words. 

We may suppose a lesson in which the given name 
is *' paper " It would present itself in such a form as 

this: — 

The paper is white. 

The paper is thin. 

The paper is smooth. 

The paper is pliable, etc. 
The teacher should next lead the children to notice 
that the word "paper" need only be written once, 
and that the four sentences may be contracted into 
one. Then the teacher directed by the children 
writes: — 
Paper is white, thin, smooth and pliable. 
The children then read this over, and are lead to 
perceive the necessity for commas in those places 
where the words "the paper is" are omitted, and 
also the use of the word " and " between the last two 



116 LANGUAGE. 



words of the sentence. Cover the board and require 
the children to reproduce the lesson. 

When the same quality is attributed to many ob- 
jects, it would present itself in such a form as this:— 

Glass is brittle. 

Chalk is brittle. 

Coal is brittle. 
Glass, coal, and chalk are brittle. 

Iron is hard. 

Flint is hard. 

Glass is hard. 
Iron, flint, and glass are hard. 

The children should be led to notice the stops as be- 
fore, and the change of the word '*is" for "are." 

Let the children observe that each sentence be- 
gins with a capital letter, and ends with a period. 
Examine each slate, and require the children to re- 
produce correct copies. 

Let the children observe that words used in a 
series are separated by a comma. 

Require the children to write many sentences, un- 
til this fact is fixed in the mind. 

A practical knowledge of language can only be 
acquired through an intelligent use of it ; children 
should be taught to speak and write the English lan- 
guage correctly^ to be able to detect the more frequent 
errors and correct them. These results can only be 
accomplished through intelligent teaching. 

Children should not be taught the final deductions 
of the science of language, which are definitions; 
they should not commit to memory arbitrary rules, 
but learn the correct use of language. The ordinary 
methods of teaching grammar do little to establish 
this. 



COMPOSITION'S BEOUN. 117 



LESSON IV. 



/. JDiredions, 

1. Ask the pupil to give a name that will apply to 
everything which they can perceive. 

2. Ask the pupils — 

a. To classify the different kinds of matter. 

b. To name the different classes. 

c. To name things that belong to the individual 

classes, 

d. To observe and tell what animals and vegeta- 

hies do. 

e. To notice and tell what animals can do which 

the vegetable cannot do. 

f. To observe the differences between the food 

of plants, and that of animals. 

g. To write a statement using the words named, 
h. To write a short composition, combining the 

statements. 

//. Cautions. 

1 *' Never assist the child to do a thing that it can 
do itself " with reasonable effort. 

2. Remember that it is a difficult thing to form a 
thought and express it. 

III. Results. 

1. It will arouse the curiosity of the pupils. 

2. It will enlist their undivided attention. 

3. It will cause them to observe closely. 

4. It will teach them the importance of classifica- 
jion. 

REHTARKS. 

The aim of these language lessons is to enlarge the 



118 LANGUAGE. 



circle of the pupil's knowledge respectlEg the objects 
brought under inquiry. The true aim is not only to 
impart knowledge rightly^ and teach the elements of 
order, but to train the powers of the pupil. This is 
its dignity ; this its peculiar distinction. The main 
design is the growth and development of the whole 
being. 

In order to teach language effectively we must begin 
the process, as nature meant we should : by furnish- 
ing the children with the elements out of which lan- 
guage is created, namely, a knowledge of material 
things. 

The teacher should place upon the table a number 
of articles, that belong to the mineral, vegetable and 
animal kingdoms. He should ask the children to 
examine them carefully^ and to tell a name that will 
apply to all of them. (It would be well to ask the 
children to bring different things from their homes.) 

The children will give the following names: arti- 
cles, objects, substances ; they may not be able to give 
the terin\h2tX you wish, which is "matter*" Write 
the words on the board, and tell the children that the 
term matter, is the one that you wish. 

Classification. 

After the children hecovnQ familiar v^'iih. this term, 
you may ask them to put all the objects of the same 
kind into groups. They will learn to classify objects — 
a very important lesson. The teacher will then ask 
the children to name the different groups, viz : min- 
eral, vegetable and animal. (It may prove a surprise to 
some of the children, that they belong to the animal 
kingdom.) 



FIRST IDEAS: THEY EXPRESSION. 119 

Many lessons may be given, requiring the children 
to name things that belong to the different classes. 

The teacher should require the children to bring in 
long lists of these names ; an exercise of this nature 
will prove very pleasant and instructive. 

Let the children observe that the animals move 
about, and plants are stationary ; that animals and 
plants take food, breathe, grow and die ; that plants 
feed on minerals ; and animals on vegetables and 
animals. 

The teacher should be very careful about assisting 
the children ; it may be well to let a question remain 
unanswered for a day or so and see if the pupils can- 
not find out the answer by a few hours' study. 

At first, with the exercises on language, the teacher 
should reach the mind only through the senses, either 
directly or indirectly, with the assistance of memory 
and imagination. 

We learn by observation ; the human mind first 
perceives the impressions made upon by external 
objects and phenomena through the various inlets of 
the soul — the senses, and forms them into clear and 
distinct ideas. 

"We are, then, justified in stating that the principal 
aim of school education is to teach the pupils how to 

FORM IDEAS AND HOW TO EXPRESS THEM 



120 LANOVAOR 



LESSON V. 



We introduce at this point a new class of objects, 

viz : Words in regard to some of their oflBces. We 

have examined the nature and functions of other 

things and have made use of the facts thus obtained 

as material for language development. Words, as 

"will be seen, can be made to give us a large stock of 

■working material to be used in advancing the Art of 

Language, 

The Noun. 

Teacher—"' What is this ?" 

Pupils'' A bell." 

♦' Spell the word bell ?" 

Note: — Pupil spells the word, and teacher writes it 
on the board. Obtain and dispose of, similarly, the 
following: book, pencil, cup, Henry, Aurora. 

** What are these on the board ?" 

"They are words." 

*' Pronounce this word: Henry. " 

"Henry." 

"When you see or hear this word, of what do 
you think ?" 

" I think of a boy." 

"What boy?" 

"My brother." 

" Why, when you hear this word, do you thin^ 
of him ?" 



THE NOUN. 121 



''Because that is his name." 

'♦ What kind of word is it ?" 

'* A name word." 

** Of what is it the name ?" 

*' It is the name of a person." 

"Of what is the word cup a name ?" 

" The name of a thing." 

" Find other words upon the board that are the 
names of things." (Pnpils Ifind pencil, book, bell.) 

"Of what do you think when you speak this 
word ?" (referring to the word Aurora.) 

"Of a town." 

" Why do you think of a place ?" 

" Because it is the name of a place." 

" Find another word and tell of what that is the 
namie." 

" Wednesday is the name of a day." 

" What is each of these words ?" 

*' Aname." 

*'Does any one know another word that means 
the same as name ?" (No hands are raised.) 

"You may call these words nouns." (Pupils 
spell ) 

" What is a noun ?" 

" A name is a noun." 

"Give me twelve names.'* (Pupils give names 
and spell them.) 

For to-morrow write : 

1. Ten words that are the names of persons. 

2. Ten words that are the names of things. 

3. Ten words that are the names of places. 



123 LANGTTAOE. 



LESSON VI. 



The Common Noun. 

*' What is this ? " (touching one of the boys.) 

♦'A boy." 

** What are you? " (addressing a boy.) 

"A boy." (Address several boys and obtain 
similar replies.) 

" By what name may all of you be called ?" 

♦'Boys." 

"A boy may open the door." (Several boys start 
to obey.) 

" Why do so many of you start when I speak ? 

" We don't know which one you mean." 

•' Why ? " 

" Because the name boy belongs to each of us." 

" What name belongs to each of you ? " 

*'Boy." 

*' What have you learned to call a word that is a 
name ? " 

*' A noun." 

" What then is the word boy ? " 

" A noun." 

" Why is it a noun ? " 

" Because it is a name." 

"Because the name applies to each of you, what 
kind of a name is it ? " 



THE COMMON KOUK 123 

' A common name." 

" What kind of a noun is it ? " 

"A common noun." 

" "What is a common noun ?" 

" A common name is a common noun." 

" But when is a name common ? " 

" When it applies to each one of the same kind of 
objects." 

*' What, then, is a common noun ? " 

" A name that applies to each one of the same 
kind of objects is a common noun." 

" Peter, bring me five things that have a common 
name. What are these called? " 

" Books." 

'* What name may be given to each boy and girl 
is this school ? " 

** Pupil." 

* ' What common name may be given to Miss , 

Miss , and Miss ? '* 

* ' Teacher. " ' ' Lady." ' ' Woman. " 

*'What kind of nouns are pencil, pupil, teacher, 
lady, boy, girl ? " 

*' Common nouns." 

For to-morrow write a list of : 

1. Twenty common nouns that are names of ar- 
ticles of furniture. 

2 Twenty common nouns that are names of 
tools. 

3. Twenty common nouns that are names of vege- 
tables. 

4. Twenty common nouns that are names of min 
erals. 



134 LANGUAOE. 



LESSON VII. 



The Proper Noun. 

"Jane, write your name on the board.'* (Pupil 
does so.) " What have you written ?" 

•* I have written my name." 

" Why do you say " my name ? " '* 

" Because it belongs to me.'* 

'* What other person in your family has the same 
name ?" 

•*No other person has the same name." 

" Class : why do you think a different name from 
any other in her family was given ?" 

*' To tell her from the others." 

•' To how many of her family does the name 
Jane belong ?" 

"It belongs to one.'* 

" What is this name ?" 

*' This name is a noun.** . 

" What is a noun ?** 

*' A name is a noun." 

*' Because this name belongs to one only, what 
kind of a noun is it ?** 

"It is a particular noun." 

" You may call it a proper noun. What is a proper 
noun ?" 

" A particular name is a proper noun.** 



THE PROPER NOUN. 125 

" To how many does a proper noun belong ?" 

" It belongs to one." 

" Give a name that is common to those three 
things. " (Pointing to a pile of books.) 

" Book." 

" Give the proper name." 

•' Monroe's First Reader, Webster's Dictionary, 
Thomson's Arithmetic.*' 

' ' Open your readers and find five proper nouns." 
(Pupils do so.) " With what kind of letter is each 
begun?" 

*' With a capital letter." 

*' Find a proper noun that does not begin with a 
capital letter." (Pupils fail to find one.) 

1. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
men. 

2. Write ten proper nouns that are the names ol 
women. 

8. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
places. 

4. Write ten proper nouns that are the names oi 
divisions of time. 



126 LANGUAGE. 



LESSON VIII. 



The Possessive Form of Nouns* 

"What is this?" 

•* That is a hat." 

♦* Whose hat is it ? " 

" William's." 

" Make a statement of what you say." 

"That is William's hat." (Some of the pupils 
write this statement on the board ; the others write 
it on their slates.) 

•' What is the word William's ?" 

"Anoun." 

"What kind of a noun ?" 

" A proper noun." 

" For what is it used in the sentence ?" 

*' To tell whose hat." " To tell who owns the hat.*» 

" You may say posesses, instead of owns." 

"To tell who possesses the hat." 

'* Speak the word as we commonly hear it." 
(Pupils do so.) 

" Speak the word as it is here used." (Pupils do 
so) 

[This should be repeated, with this and other 
nouns, until the pupils perceive clearly, and can 
state the difference between the sounds of the two 
forms.] 



POSSESSIVE FORMS. 127 

"Open your books and find names used as we 
have used the name William in this sentence." 
(Pupils find many words and pronounce them.) 

" What is the difference in the sounds of these 
words, and the same words as they are commonly 
called ? " (Pupils state.) 

" What do you find in the printed word to repre- 
sent that difference ? " 

" An apostrophe and a letter s." 

•' As you look at the words William and William's, 
what difference can you see ? " 

*' One has more letters than the other." " A differ- 
ence in the size of them." "A diff"erence in the form 
of them." 

"Because William is the way we commonly use 
the word, what form may we call it ? " 

" The common form." 

"What shall we call the other form ? " (Pupila 
do not know.) 

" You may call this the possessive form of the 
noun." (Pupils spell the word.) 

1. Write ten common nouns in the possessive 
case. 

3. Write ten proper nouns in the possessive case. 

In like manner develop all the Part of Speechy as 
the adjective, pronoun, verb, etc., and make immedi' 
ate application of the terms developed. This will lead 
the pupils pleasantly into the Science of Language, 
and it will become a rational study. 



128 LANOVAQS. 



LESSON IX. 



Quoted Words. Quotation Marks. 

*' What is an exclaiming sentence ?" (Pupils give 
definition.) 

*' John, give an exclaiming sentence." 

" O, how cold it is ! " 

*' Mary, tell me what John said." 

' ' John said, * 0, how cold it is.' " 

[Pupils repeat, spell words and write upon their 
elates, after which teacher writes upon the board 
without punctuating. Two other sentences are 
obtained and similarly disposed of.] 

** Read what John said." 

'"O, how cold it is!'" 

*' What are you doing when you speak the words 
that he said ? " 

'* Copying his words." " Repeating his words.** 



'IHE COMMA. 139 



LESSON X. 



The Comma — Its Use in a Succession ol 
Particulars. ' 

*' I want you to tell me, by writing on your slates, 
five things that this knife has." 

[The pupils at the age of those for whom these 
lessons are inteiaded will, almost without exception, 
write five sentences.] 

" This knife has a handle." 

" This knife has a blade." 

*' This knife has a back." 

" This knife has a spring." 

" This knife has rivets." 

*' How many sentences have you written f " 

•'Five." 

** See how many times you have written the words 
tJiis^ knife^ has, and a. Can you not shorten the work 
by putting all you have to say into one sentence ? " 
(Pupils write.) 

" The knife has a handle and blade and back and 
spring and rivets. " 

"Listen closely. I am going to ask you another 
question. What is the use of the of the words 
handle, blade, back, spring and rivets ? What did 
you discover ? " 



130 LANQVAQE. 



"You said and, only before the last word." 

" Now, I think you can give the sentence that you 
have been writing, and have it justright. Who will 
try ? " (Hands are raised.) 

" The knife has a handle, blade, back, spring and 
rivets." 

*' That is right. All repeat." (Pupils repeat, and 
write on their slates.) 

"There is a question unanswered. Who can 
give it ? " (Hands are raised.) 

" What is the use of the words handle, blade, back, 
spring and rivets ? " 

" Right. Who will answer it ? " 

" To show what the knife has." 

" Because they are all used for that purpose, what 
may we say about them." 

" They are used in the same way." " They are 
used alike." 

" Now, turn to your books, and find words that 
are used alike, and see how they are written ; then 
we shall know whether our work is right or not. 
What do you discover ? " 

'* There is a comma after each of the words except 
the one before the last." (Pupils correct the work 
on their slates. 

"You say these words are used in the same way. 
How many words in this sentence are used in the 
Bame way ?" 

"Five." "Many." "Several." 

" Which now makes the best answer to my ques- 
tion — five, many or several ? " 



THE C03I3IA. 131 



« Several." 

"I think so. We have learned something about 
the use of the comma, and I want you to tell me 
what it is. " 

** When several words are used in the same way, a 
comma is placed after the one before the last." 

[Teacher ought now to suggest many kinds of 
sentences containing successions or particulars, and 
have them all written and carefully criticised. Drill 
on this lesson should continue several days.] 



132 LAN^OVAOE. 



LESSON XI. 



/ Directions. 

1. The teacher "will select a familiar theme and aslj 
suggestive questions. 

2. Write the correct answers on the board. 

Theme— Water. 

ft. Where does the water come from? 

b. How does it reach the clouds? 

c. In what form is it carried? 

d. What causes it to fall to the earth? 

e. Is rain useful ? 

f. In what way is it useful? 

Theme — A Journey. 

a. The starting point. 

b. Time of departure. 

c. Mode of travel. 

d. Destination. 

e. Appearance of the country. 

f. Kind of trees, flowers, etc. 

g. Return. 

Caution. — Enlarge upon the idea of criticising &n^ 
correcting by the pupils. 



PBAOTIOAL EXAMPLES. 133 



LESSON XII. 



I. Directions. 

1. Tell or read a short story, and require the pupils 
to reproduce it. 

2. Write a letter to a wealthy merchant in New- 
York city, requesting a situation as salesman in his 
store. 

3. Write an advertisement describing a lost child. 

4. Write a composition on each of the following 
proverbs, explaining its meaning, and showing how 
far it is true : — 

a. "Fortune favors the brave." 

b. "All is well that ends well." 

c. *' Strike while the iron is hot." 

d. '*A little pot is soon hot." 

e. " Out of sight out of mind." 

5. Take some poem of several stanzas, and write 
your opinion of it. 

6. Write a letter to the " New York Times," giv- 
ing an account of a railway accident. 

7. Write an allegory comparing tobacco to a thief. 

REMARKS. 

Perhaps as easy a method as any to induce the 
younger class of pupils to make their first efibrts at 
composition is to read or relate to them a short, but 
interesting story, and desire them to write an outline 
of it, as full and extended as they can within a given 
time. In such an exercise the thoughts are already 
furnished and the only labor of the pupil is, to place 



134 LARQUAGE. 



them in their proper connection and clothe them with 
good language. In an exercise of this kind the pupil 
takes one of his first lessons in generalization; he 
learns to separate and classify facts, selecting the 
most important, and rejecting those of little conse- 
quence. A similar course should he observed by 
students in History, writing each day a fair outline 
of the subject-matter contained in the pages of their 
lesson. 

Theme— Abraham Lincoln* 

/. His Early Life. 

a. Birth. 

b. Childhood. 

c. Youth. 

d. Manhood. 

e. Difficulties. 

II. Eis After Life. 

a. Occupation. 

b. Election to the Presidency. 

c. Administration. 

d. Assassination. 

e. Burial. 

III. His Character, 

a. Simplicity. 

b. Uprightness. 

The Influence of Kind Words. 

I. A Kind Word costs nothing, yet its influence may lat 
through a life-time. 

a. Kind words at home. 

b. Kind words in school. 

c. Kind words to friends. 

d. Kind words to our inferiors. 

e. Kind words to strangers. 

f. Kind words to animals. 



" THE INFLUENCE O F KIND WORDS:' 135 

11. The Infjuence upon the Speaker. 

a. They gain him friends. , 

b They gain him a reputation for amiability. 
c' They keep alive his kindly feelings. ^ ^ 
d* They produce images of beauty in his mma 
e. They win for him love and gratitude. 

III. The Influence upon the Hearer. 

a. They shame him out of anger. 

b. They comfort him in grief. 

c. They soothe him in pain. 
IV. The InHuence upon Children. 

V. Influence upon the Poor. 
VI. Influence upon Other Feeble. 

a. The morose. 

b. The misanthopic. 

c. The wicked. 

d. The weak. 

VII. Uses of Kind Words. 
VIII. Value of Kind Words. 
IX. Compared with : 

a. Angry words. 

b. Cold words. 

c. Hot words. 

d. Bitter words. 

e. Vain words, idle words, empty words, protane 

words, &c. 
X. Conclude by any instances you may be able to 
recall, of the influence of kind words, in your exper- 
ience ; as, an anecdote or incident. 

It is almost impossible to over-estimate the in- 
fluence of a kind word. Years after the speaker has 
forgotten it, or the occasion upon which it was 
Bpoken, the hparer will feel the result of the encour- 



136 LANGUAGE. 



agemci^t it gave him, the difficulty it smoothed or the 
sorrow it comforted. Especiall)'" to the weak, the 
aged or the erring, should we oiler these aids in life's 
rough path. Costing nothing, the)"^ may prove pearls 
of the highest price. They have the wondrous prop- 
erty that the}^ can never prove harmful, either to the 
speaker or the hearer. They cannot injure, they can- 
not cause contention, they cannot raise harsh feeling. 
Cherish, then, the kind heart, full of love for your 
fellow creatures, and kind words will spring to your 
lips, to bless and comfort all around you. 

Politeuess. 

I. Definilion. 

Ease and grace of manner, united to a desire 
to please others, and a careful attention to their 
wants and wishes. 

JI, Politeness exacts of us : 

a. Unsellishness, in our care for the comfort or 

pleasure of others. 

b. Elegance of manner, in our desire to please 

by our deportment, 

c. Deference toward our superiors, either in age, 

station or importance. 

d. Kindness to our inferiors, either children or 

servants. 
III. Value of Politeness, 

a. It proceeds from the impulse of a kindly 

nature, proving a good heart. 

b. It will admit of a great degree of polish, prov- 

ing a finished education. 

c. It gives respect where it is due, and thus wins 

consideration in return. 

d. It gives kindness to inferiors, and thus wins 

respect and gratitude from them. 

e. It promotes good feeling among friends, 

f. It prevents discords, even among enemies. 



• ' POLITENESS. " 137 



IV. Natural Politeness. 

a. Proceeds from the heart without instruction. 

b. Often to be found among us the rough and un- 

cultivated, even if more clumsily expressed 
than among the educated and refined. 

V. Acquired Politeness. 

a. The observance of points of etiquette ano' 

good breeding by the well educated. 

b. Mere polish of manner, often covering a self 

ish, hard nature. 

VI. Politeness in different Countries. 

a. The etiquette of one nation often considered 

rude (^r insulting in another. 

b. Every race, even the most savage, has some 

form of outward politeness. 

c. Name any peculiar form of etiquette you may 

have seen or read of. 

VII. Politeness in Children and Young People is one of the 
most winning and graceful of attributes. It is a mis- 
taken idea to fancy rudeness a token of manliness or 
bravery. Bayard, one of tJw bravest of Cavaliers, 
was one of the most finished gentlemen mentiomd in 
history. 

VIII. Perfect Politeness may be defined as the union of 
natural politeness of the heart, and the acquired Polite- 
ness of Etiquette and Custom. Holmes describes the 
combination : 

"So gentle blending courtesy and art, 
That wisdom's lips seem'd borrowing friendship's 
Heart. 

Wisdom is Wealth. 

J. Wealth may be defined as 

a. Great possessions. 

b. A large amount of worldly good. 

II. Mere Money may, it is true, be considered as Wealth, 
out are there not more precious possessions, woi Idly 
goods far more valuable ? 



138 LAXOUAOE. 



III. Povei^ty, it is ime, will impede our search for Wisdojn, 
as %ce shall Pack : 

a. Time for study, if obliged to earu a livelihood. 

1). The means of buying books. 

c. The advantages of good iustructiou. 

XV. But Wisdom once gained is preferable to Money, for 
these reasons : 

a. Once gained it cannot be taken from us, while 

money may be lost by a thousand reverses. 

b. It can never be given to us, but we must taste 

the sweets of exertion and enjoy the reflec- 
tion that we have earned our treasures. 

c. AVe can never acquire wisdom by theft, or 

inherit it when dishonestly acquired, as we 
might mere monej^ 

d. Wisdom is independence. The man who has 

acquired knowledge, can in a great measure 
control his own future. His opportunities 
for earning money are largely increased ; his 
pleasures lie in his love of reading and study, 
and are therefore always open to him ; he is 
respected by his fellow men ; he never feels 
the weariness of the vacant mind, if reverses 
come to him — his wisdom enables him to 
meet them bravely and often to conquer 
them. 

V. Conclusion. 

In starting, therefore, in life, the possession of wis- 
dom is far preferable to the possession of mere 
money, if ignorance is the price of the latter. A fool 
can never win honor or even respect, if he were to 
possess unbounded riches ; all the pleasures that can 
be purchased are nothing compared to the delights of 
a cultivated mind and a refined intellect. 

Seek, therefore, to gain wisdom, that you may 
possess that true wealth that can never betaken away 
from you, that you will never lose, that you may im- 
part freely to others, and in so imparting increase 
your own store lather than diminish it. 



'' WISDOM IS wealth:' 139 

Whose life most brightly illuminates the pages of 
the past— the wise man's or the rich man's ? 

In the history of tbe future, aim rather to figure as 
a Socrates than as a Croesus 

Compare the life of the wisest man you can re- 
member, and that of the richest man. 

Knowledge is Power ; Wisdom is Wealth. 

Absent Friends. 

J. Introduction. 

In this world of change, every one is called upon 
1o feel the pain of separation from friends endeared 
by association or acts of kindness. The dearest 
friends are severed by circumstances, often having 
the ocean between them. 

II. Treatise. 

a. Affection is kept warm by kind remembrance. 

b. Tender recollection will dwell upon words 

spoken by the absent, and the memory of 
their acts will be cherished with pleasure. 

c. Their return to us, or our joining them, will 

be anticipated with delight. 

d. The circumstances under which separation 

took place, will seriously affect our thoughts. 
1. Parting in anger. Time heals rage. 
3. Parting in affection. Time increases love. 
3. Parting in sorrow. Anticipated joy of meet- 
ing again. 

e. Separation by death. 

1. Memory of friends becomes then a holy 

and pleasant duty. 

2. Faults are forgotten when the grave closes 

over them. 

3. Virtues are remembered with reverence 

when associated with death. 

4. But few homes are without their unforgot- 

ten dead, whose memory is associated with 
Bome spot or hour. 



140 LANGUAGE. 



f. Compare the pain of parting and the pleasure 
of meeting. 

1. After a journey. 

2. After years of separation. 

3. Hope of .reunion in another world. 

" The joys of meeting pay the pangs of absence; 
Else who could bear it?" [Rowe. 

Ghneral Directions. 

1. Make a plan or outline of the essay before writ- 

ing any part of it. 

2. Note down in writing any useful thought that 

may occur to you while you are collecting 
material for your composition. 

Fxercise in Synonyms. 

1. Custom — habit. — Custom res-pects the SLCticn ; habit 

the actor. By custom we mean the frequent 
repetition of the same act ; by Jiabii the effect 
which that repetition produces on the mind or 
body. 

2. Pride — 'vanity. — Pnde makes us esteem ourselves; 

vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. 

3. ETWugh — mfficient. — Eno^igh relates to the quan- 

tity which one wishes to have of anything; 
sufficient, all that is needed. 

4. Remark — observe. — We remark in the way of 

attention, in order to remember ; we observem 
the way of exauii nation, in order to judge. 
'5. Qualified — Gomi:)Gtent. — Qualified, having the train- 
ing, skill, knowledge ; competent^ having the 
power. 

6. Entire— complete— ^yerfect. — Entire, having all its 

parts ; ermplete, all its appendages ; perfect, all 
essentials, without flaw. 

7. Fortitude — coura^;e. — Foi^titude, power to endure 

pain ; courage, power to face danger. 

8. Vocation — avocation. — Vocation is the calling or 

profession ; avocatiouy the temporary employ- 
ment. 



SYNONYMS. 141 



Q. Excuse — pardon — forgive. — We excuse slight 
offences; we ^arc?<>7i manifest faults; we for- 
give sin. 

10. Grand — sublime. — Lovely, pretty, beautiful. (We 

omit definitions.) 

11. Amuse — divert — entertain. — Amuse^ to pass time 

lightly and pleasantly away ; Divert, to 
turn one's thoughts to something of a livlier 
interest ; entertain, to put the mind into 
agreeable contact with others, as through con- 
versation, or a book. 

12 Arduous — hard — difficult. — Bifflcult, anything that 
requires more or less exertion to perform it ; 
hard, that which requires a decidedly greater 
effort to perform it ; arduous, that which re- 
quires strenuous and perserving effort to per- 
form it. 

Gospel. — Derived from the Saxon adjective G6d, 
meaning good and spell, a narrative — the good 
narrative, or glad ticlings. 

This can be made a very pleasant and instructive ex- 
ercise ; the teacher should explain and illustrate the 
synonyms, and require the pupils to form sentences, 
using the words correctly. It will teach precision in 
the use of words ; great care should be taken 
to distinguish between the general meanings and par- 
ticular applications. 

Instruct the pupils to use simple, plain terms ; com- 
pare the quotations below and study the difference in 
the simplicity of the thought. 

" Life is real, life is earnest ; and the grave is not 
its goal. Dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not 
spoken of tlie soul." — Longfellow. ' ' Life is the definite 
combination of definite composite heterogeneous 
changes, both simultaneous and successive, in corres- 
pondence with external co-existences and sequences." 
— Herbert Spencer. 



143 LANGUAGE. 



Common Mistakes. 

1. *' We have no corporeal punishment here" said 

a teacher. C&rp&i'al means having a body. 
Coi'poi'eal is opposed to spiritual. Say, corporal 
punishment. 

2. '* Set down and rest yourself;" say, sit down. 

3. "T7/i(? do you mean?" say, icJiom. 

4. *' He lias got my slate;" oxmi got, 

5. •' Who done it y" say, who did it. 

6. ^'' I intended to have loritten a letter yesterday;" 

say, to loHte. 

7. *' The girl speaks distinct-^'' say, distinctly. 

8. " He lives at New York;" say, in New York. 

9. " He made a great splurge-^'' say, he made a blust- 

ering effort. The first savors of slang. 
10. '*My brother lays ill of a fever;" should be my 
brother lies ill of a fever. 

Vulgarism. 

The following words and expressions should be 
strictly avoided in conversation and in writing. Only 
a few of the many hundreds in use by uneducated 
people, will be noticed. 

1. " Acknowledge the com," — instead of to admit. 

2. *' Ain't," — instead of is not, or isn't. 

3. "Awful," — instead of ugly or difficult. 

4. "Beat out," — instead of tired. 

5. *' Dreadful," — instead of very. 

6. ''Hopping mad," — instead of very angry. 

7. " Strapped," — wanting or out of money. 

8. " Wrathy," — instead of angry 

9. Female,— incorrectly used to denote a person of 

the female sex. "To speak of a woman simply 
as a female, is ridiculous." 

The teacher should keep a record of all the mis- 
takes made by the pupils, and encourage them to do 
the same. Ouce a week they should be written on 



FINAL SUGGESTIONS. 143 

the board, and corrected by the pupils ; the teacher 
assisting when necessary. 

The pupils should be required to copy in a note- 
book, the exercises in a form similar to the above. 

Let the pupils learn the cwreci way of speaking by 
a correct use of the term. Arbitrary rules are of little 
use in the beginning. 

REMARKS. 

The teacher, at first, will assist the pupils to classi- 
fy subjects, draw outlines and form correct tabula- 
tions. Questions may be used for a brief time, to 
teach classification ; but should be cast aside as soon 
as possible. The teacher should always require 
pupils to hand in an outline of the subject. This 
plan will cultivate individuality and originality and 
give the pupils a training, intellectually, that will 
prove of great service in after life. 

As a specioX science, language is abstruse in charac- 
ter, applying mainly to reason ; hence it belongs to 
the advanced course. As an imitative art, it applies 
mainly to perception, hence it belongs in the primary 
course. Grammar is a special science, and should be 
taught through the use of it, rather than the use 
through the science. 

Closing Remarks on the Manner oi Teaching 
Language. 

The teacher must not attempt to do any more than 
she can do well. It would not do, for instance, to 
select an object in which the properties to be illus- 
trated were not well developed, nor an object with 
which the pupils were not familiar. 



144 LAyaUAGK 



Every lesson should be given in such a way as to 
draw out the perceptive pvowers of the pupil by lead- 
ing hiiu to reflect on what he sees, or to analyze the 
object before him. It is at first though strange — 
although it is true — that powers are to be strengthened 
onlj' by teaching the pupil to TniKK upon what he 

sees. 

How to C'onihict a Lesson. 

1 Prepare yourself before hand on the subject, 
lixing in your mind exactly what subjects you 
will bring up, just what definitions and illus- 
trations you will give or draw out of the class. 

2. Have the work marked and written down in the 
form of a synopsis. 

8. Use the board in all exercises ; write on it tech- 
nical words, classification of the knowledge 
brought out in the recitation, and whenever 
possible, illustrative drawings. 

4. Whenever the subject is of such a nature as to 

allow it, the teacher should bring in real ob- 
jects illustrative of it and encourage the chil- 
dren to do the same. 

5. Do not burden the pupil with too many new 

technical phrases at a time, nor fall into the 
opposite error of using only the loose common 
vocabulary of ordinary life which lacks scien- 
tific precision. 

Recapitulation. 

To name once more in a brief manner the cardinal 
poi7its to be kept in mind constantly by the teacher. 

1. Discuss the topics tlwrouglily . 

2. Do n(it overburden the pupil's memory. 

3. Do not distract his power of attention. 

4. Never take up a topic that you are unable to ex- 

plain and illustrate so clearly as to make the 
pupil understand it. 

5. Avoid all phases of thesubjectthat will tend to 

confuse rather than enlighten. 



TOPICS FOR THE SCHOOT^ROOM. 145 

6. Draw out in a conversational way the experi- 

ence and information which your scholars al- 
ready possess on the subject. 

7. Never omit to show by a synopsis on the board, 

what has been discussed in the lesson, its clas- 
sification and relation. 

8. Require short weekly compositions of the pupils, 

expressing in their own language their ideas 
on the subject. 

We have presented a few language lessons, sugges- 
tive, only, as to the manner of teaching. 

Teachers who have not taught language we 
would encourage to begin, and make provision 
for it on the daily programme. 

Arithmetic, geography and reading do not form 
the sole basis of elementary education ; and some of 
the sad experiences of the past few years in speaking 
and writing the English language, prove that lan- 
guage should have a very prominent place in the 
programme. 

Topics for Brief Lectares in the School-Room. 

By spending ten or fifteen minutes each day, 
in a familiar, conversational lecture, upon some 
topic or object, selected from the following list, 
not only will the scholars be interested and 
learn many new truths in a way to remember 
them, but the teacher himself will derive great ad- 
vantage from his preparation for such an exercise. 
Whenever it can be done, the means of illustration 
should be at hand, to demonstrate to the eye, and 
thus fasten upon the mind, the facts and reasoning of 
the lecturer. The curiosity of the pupils should be 



146 



LAXGZ'AGK 



excited, and questions and remarks from them en- 
couraged, and by these means they will be led to 
closer habits of thought and observation. 



1. Glass. 


17. 


Cinnamon. 33. Gold. 1 


3. India-rubber. 18. 


Nutmeg 


34. Silver. 


3. Leather. 


19. 


Ginger. 


35. Mercury. 


4. Sponge. 


20. 


Cloves. 


36. Lead. 


5. Wool. 


21. 


Water. 


37. Copper. 


6. Wnx. 


22. 


Oil. 


S8. Inm. 


7. Whalebone. 


23. 


Vinegar 


39. Tin. 


8. Bread. 


24. 


Butter. 


40. Lime. 


9. Ivorv. 


25. 


Cheese. 


41. Coal. 


10. Chalk. 


26. 


Coffee. 


42. Granite. 


11. A pin. 


27. 


Tea. 


43. Salt. 


12. A pencil. 


28. 


Rice. 


44. Slate. 


13. A brick. 


29. 


Paper. 


45. Feather. 


14. An acorn. 


80. 


Cotton. 


46. Coral. 


15. A cork. 


31. 


Flax. 


47. Gutta-percha. ^ 


16. A stone. 


32. 


Silk. 


48. A piece of fur. 


1. Rotoundity of the earth. 6. 


Phases of the moon. 


2. Spheroidal form of the 7. 


Tides. 


earth. 




8. 


Eclipses. 


3. Origin and use of salt 9. 


Electricity. 


in the sea 




10. 


Mariner's compass. 


4. Commerce. 




11. 


Circulation of the 


5. The seasons. 






blood. 



Qnestions for Debate* 

Is the farmer the most useful member of society? 

Does wealth tend to exalt the human character? 

Has civilization increased human happiness? 

Are great men the greatest benefactors of the world? 

Is intemperance a greater evil than war? 

Do inventions improve the conditions of thelaboring 

classes? 
Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to 

exertion than the fear of punishment? 
Do savage nations possess the right to the soil? 



COMPOSITION' SUBJECTS. 



147 



the 



Is the mind of woman inferior to that of man? 

Is the pen mightier than the sword? 

Has increased wealth a favorable influence on 

morals of the people? 
Did the Crusades benefit Europe? 
Was the invention of gunpowder an evil? 
Is the existence of political parties an evil? 
Is the pulpit a better field for eloquence than the bar? 



Su1)ject8 for Compositions. 



Spring. 

Flowers. 

A Thunder-storm. 

What becomes of the 
Rain ? 

Snow. 

Mountains. 

Forests. 

The Beauties of Nature. 

Our Country. 

The Study of History. 

Peace. 

War. 

The Ruins of Time. 

The Fickleness of For- 
tune. 

A Dream. 

A Ray of Light. 

A Drop of Water. 

Immutability of Change. 

Town and Country. 

Kever Give Up. 

Benevolence. 

History of a Looking- 
Glass. 

Power of Mind. 

The Bible. 

The Ruins of Time. 

The Sunny Side. 



Blessings of Hope. 
Flowers of Memory. 
The Prairies. 
Unity in Diversity. 
The Starry Heavens. 
By-gone Hours. 
Immortality of the Soul. 
Influence of the Great and 

Good. 
Poetry of Nature. 
Music of Nature. 
Memory of our Fathers. 
Matter and Mind. 
The Stuff that Dreams are 

made of. 
Spring. 
The Seasons. 
Heat. 
Light. 

The Spirit of Discovery. 
The Art of Printing. 
Newspapers. 
Novelty. 
The Sun. 
The Rainbow. 
The Moon. 
The Aurora Borealis. 
The Stars. 
The Earth. 



148 



LANGUAGE. 



The Shady Side. 

Human Genius. 

Aim High. 

Past and Present. 

Book of Nature. 

Hope On, Hope Ever. 

Nature's Mysteries. 

The Contrast. 

Magic of Kindness. 

Cost of Civility. 

Things that Cost Noth- 
ing. 

The Orphan. 

The Rolling Stone. 

Teachers. 

Loved Faces. 

"We Bloom today, to- 
morrow Die ! 

The Wreath of Fame. 

Reflections of a Look- 
ing-glass. 

Early Companionship. 

Music of the Sea-shell. 

Letter from the Town. 

Letter from the Country. 

Tricks of Trade. 

Keepsakes. 

Aly Room-mate, 

The True Friend. 

What shall we Read ? 

School Associations. 

Paddle your own Canoe. 

Star of 'Home. 

One by One. 

I've Wandered in Dreams 

Philosophy of a Tear. 

Music ot the Spheres. 

Oppression the Nursery 
of Reform. 



The Study of Geography. 

The Pleasures of Travel- 
ling. 

The Applications of Steam 

Rivers. 

To-morrow. 

The Ocean. 

Manufactures. 

The Influence of Woman. 

Hero-worship. 

The True Hero. 

Sources of a Nation's 
Wealth. 

Commerce 

Early Rising. 

Cheerfulness. 

The Uses of Biography. 

The Backwoodsman. 

Punctuality. 

Curiosity. 

Foppery. 

Gardening. 

Modern Delusions. 

Young America. 

The Multiplication of 
Books. 

The Philosopher's Stone. 

Nature and Art. 

The Freedom of the Press. 

The Present. 

The Past. 

The Future. 

Silent Influence, 

The Monuments of An« 
tiquity. 

Rome was not built m a 
day. 

The First Stroke is Half 
the Battle, 



BEFERENGE BOOKS. 149 

Beacon - lights of the Make Hay while the Sun 

World. shines. 

The Book. Necessity is tbe Mother of 

Peaceful Conquests. of Invention. 

A Picture of Fancy. A Soft Answer Turneth 

Leaflets of Memory. away Wrath. 

Silent Influence. Avoid Extremes. 

For the benefit of the teachers, I would refer them 
to the following list of books on Language, any of 
which will be sent on receipt of the price by the 
School Bulletin^ Syracuse, N. Y. : — 

Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in Language, 
published by D. Appleton & Co., New York, f cts. 

Bigsby's Language Lessons, published by Ginn 
& Heath, Boston, 50 cts. 

Swinton's Language Series, published by Harper & 
Brothers, New York, $3.15. 

Graded Lessons in English, published by Clark & 
Maynard, New York, 50 cts. 

Hadley's Language Lessons, published by Scribner, 
Armstrong & Co., New York, 50 cts. 

Zander's Outlines of Composition, published by R. 
S. Davis & Co., Boston, 94 cts. 

Barnard's Oral training, published by A. S. Barnes 
& Co., New Tork, $1.00. 

Hailman's Outlines of Object Teaching, pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New 
York, $1.00. 

Sheldon's Lessons on Objects, published by 
Scribner, Armstrong & Co., New York, $1.75. 

Welch's Object Lessons for Primary Schools, pub- 
lished by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $1.00. 

How to Write a Composition, published by Dick 
& Fitzgerald, 18 Ann St., New York, 50 cts. 

First Lessons in English Language, published by 
VanAntwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, 35 cts. 



LETTER-WRITING. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Good letter-writing is one of the main springs of 
business, and one of the strongest connecting links 
of common life. It were to be wished that more 
attention were paid to the subject of letter-writing 
in our schools. In the present day, when ignorance 
is deservedly at a discount, and when so much is ex- 
pected of every one, even in a humble position in 
life, there is no reason why letters should furnish so 
many examples of outrageous grammar and absurd 
diction. 

A habit of expressing oneself distinctly, and 
ever without pretension, ought to be inculcated in 
early life. 

When the difficulties of spelling have once been 
conquered, there will be little difficulty in enabling 
the pupil to acquire such simple forms of letter- 
writing as are necessary to the ordinary correspond- 
ence of business. 

In reference to the more polite correspondence, 
we do not suppose it can be of any great use 
to those whose personal gifts have been carefully im- 
proved by education, for "true ease in writing," 
as Pope says, "comes by art, not chance.' 



INTROB UCTOR Y. 151 

But to many, whose opportunities have been less 
brilliant, a few suggestions may be offered which may 
prevent being at a loss how to begin, or how to state 
a particular topic, and which, if not leading to the 
production of a good letter, may at all events pre- 
vent anything like positive awkwardness or inele- 
gance. 

Greater attention will be given to the mechanical 
structure of a letter than to its literary finish. 

Those who wish to carry the subject to a greater 
extent, may receive aid from works upon Language 
and Letter Writing, 

The chief end and aim of this chapter on Letter- 
Writing, is to give a correct guide in the matter ot 
mechanical detail and in the combination of the parts 
of a letter. It is hoped that this subject will receive 
attention, and that all the pupils who are not thor- 
oughly FAMILIAR with it, may be taught how to 
WRITE A LETTER. It is of morc importance than the 
thousand-and-one facts taught in Geography, that are 
readily forgotten ; or the discipline received from mul- 
tiplying X -f y by X + y. 



152 LETTER-WRITma. 



DEAD LETTERS. 



A Pathetic and Kidiculous Array of Stra) 
Mail Matter. 

(Washington Correspondence,) 
One can hardly realize that there "is a daily average 
of 12,000 or 15,000 dead letters, or about 400,000 a 
month. Allowing one person to a letter, there are 
400,000 persons every month who undertake to send 
letters either without stamps, without addresses, or 
with cancelled stamps, insufficient postage, illegi- 
ble or incorrect addresses. Many of them are 
■without either stamp or address, and often with no 
signature which gives the slightest clue to persons 
sending them. There are 40,000 a month received 
that either lack postage or address, or else have in- 
sufficient or cancelled stamps, and, strange as it may 
seem, these are sometimes the most valuable letters, 
often containing currency or drafts for large amounts 
of money. It is estimated that there is about $3,000,- 
000 in drafts and about $75,000 in cash received yearly 
through dead letters. This is all returned, if possi- 
ble, to the persons sending it ; but if any portion of 
it fails to find a claimant, it is turned over to the 
Post Office fund. 

Very little difficulty is experienced in restoring the 
checks and drafts to the rightful owners, but the 



DEAD LETTERS. 153 

money generally comes in small sums, and is usually 
sent in tlie most careless, haphazard fashion, and the 
loss of these small sums, and the ignorance or care- 
lessness with which they are launched upon a jour- 
ney, represent a deal of suffering and disappoint- 
ment. Some hard working man may send |20, the 
savings of a month's labor, to his wife and little 
ones, whom he has had to leave behind him ; but, 
alas, he is one of forty thousand who trust to Provi- 
dence, without stamp or address, or else his writing 
or orthography are beyond mortal ken, and so the 
poor wife never gets the pittance which is her all. 

The paradise of fools, " to few unknown," is the 
mental comment as one sees the many evidences of 
people's carelessness, foolishness and stupidity which 
are displayed at the Dead Letter Office Museum. 
Arranged in glass cases on the four sides of the room 
are all these waifs of travel, displayed with a view 
to their respective attractions, and suggestive of the 
treachery of postage stamps and the adverse fate 
which sometimes overtakes even mail bags. There 
is everything known to the useful and ornamental ; 
everything not smaller than a thimble or larger than 
a stovepipe hat. 

Such a pathetic array of might-have-beens, so elo- 
quent of disappointments and blighted hopes! Locks 
of hair — there are whole switches of them — and as 
for photographs, we are told that there are forty 
bushels of them in the basement of the building. 
But fancy yourself the recipient of a nice parcel from 
the hands of the postman some morning, which upon 



154 LETTER-WRITIXO, 

being opened discloses a live snake ! Whether one 
■would go into raptures or hysterics at such a treasure 
would be a matter of taste, I suppose. But, then^ 
people do send snakes through the mail, and some- 
times they come back to the Dead Letter Office for 
want of a claimant, and we see them leading a se- 
renely spiritual existence in a glass jar among other 
stray postal curiosities. It is a fact that a postmaster 
once found a small live alligator disporting among 
the letters and papers in a mail bag. 

It is very amusing to see the letters opened, and 
guess at their contents before they are brought to 
light. Three out of five from a bundle of unad- 
dressed letters contained money, one of them a $5 
note. Then there are such quantities of dress sam- 
ples in letters. One would imagine that all woman- 
kind had discovered a language in the interchange of 
these scraps of dress fabrics. One half show their 
prosperity in bits of silks and satins, and the other 
half in slips of sixpenny calico, and it is only in the 
Dead Letter Office that they meet on common ground. 
Certainly every fifth letter contains a photograph, 
and I don't imagine that any great care is taken to 
return lost photographs ; but any one so bereaved has 
the privilege of rummaging among the forty bush- 
els of human ** counterfeits" which have accumu- 
lated here. 

During November, 1876 more than 400,000 let- 
ters, newspapers and postal cards, were received 
for delivery by the letter carriers of New York 
city, of which 20,000 were returned by them as unde- 



DEAD LETTERS. 155 

liverable on account of incorrect and illegible super- 
scriptions. Four million and a half accumulate an- 
nually in tbe United States. 

From the above statistics, and the testimony of 
many postmasters, it is evident that it is the impera- 
tive duty on the part of the teacher, to give instruc- 
tion in Letter Writing. Considering the carelessness 
of the average American in the matter of directing 
letters, this fact does not speak well for American 
teachers. 

It has been taken for granted, that pupils, who 
could parse and analyze a simple sentence, bound the 
states and territories, and explain an example in cube 
root, could write a passable letter ; but this is a mis- 
take. A majority of our pupils are only able to do 
what has been taught to them, and that thoroughly. 
It is not enough to say to your pupils "that you 
should be able to write a good letter ;" you should 
teach them HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 



156 LETTER-WRITING. 



HOW TO TEACH LETTER-WRITIXG. 



L Directions^ — 

1. Develop every part of the letter. 

3. Illustrate and explain each part on the board. 

2. Require pupils to copy the correct form. 

4. Require pupils to reproduce each part. 

5. Carefully examine. the pupils' work. 

6. After all the parts of the structure of a lettei 
have been taught thorougMy^ and the pupils have been 
drilled sufficiently, require them to reproduce the whole 
correctly. 

7. Teach them how to place the superscription 
upon the envelope, and require them to hand in, a 
letter properly written, folded, inserted and carefully 
superscribed. 



GENERAL ANALYSIS. 



157 



LETTER-WRITING. 



ri a -oi i ^' Domestic. 
1. fcociai. - -j ^ Introductory, 



Classifica- 
tion of 
Letters. 



I. Private 



etc. 



n -D • i <2. Personal, 

2. Business I ^Og^^.^l_ 

3. Miscellaneous. 



i ^4. Postal Cards. 

\J1. Public, or Open. 

Structure oi Letters. 



A. Materials. 



'1. Paper. - 

2. Ink— Color 

3- Envelopes. | ^' qJ 
.4. Pen. 



a. Size. 
5. Quality, 
c. Color. 



Size. 
Color. 



B. Heading. 



No. 



I. Position and Arrangement. 

ri. Post-Office.- -j g^ 

ri. Place I 2. County or City. 

I \d. State. 

n. Parts. ■{ 

j ri. Month. 

1^2. Date, -j 2. Day of the Month 

[3. Year. 

ni. Punctuation, 



I. Position and Arrangement, 

l\ Address U- Name & title 
-. -r X . X. TT -D + J ^^^^®^^- ] 2. Directions. 

C. Introduction. ■{ II. Parts -^ ^ 

( 2. Salutation. 
n. Punctuation. 

Business. 

Social & Miscellaneous. 



^VI. Model I 2 



15S 



LETTER- WRITING. 



I. Be2:inning. 
D. Body of the Letter. ] II. The Margin. 

III. Paragraphing. 



' I. Position and Arrangement. 

( 1. Coniplimentai'y Close. 
E. Conclusion. -( II. Parts. -I 3. Signature. 

[3. Address. 

.m. Punctuation. 



F. Folding. 



G. Superscription 



' I. Position and Arrangement. 

( 1. Name and Title. 

II. Parts. -^ ( l.Postoffic« 

( 3. Directions ■( 3. County. 

III. Punctmtion. (3. State. 

,IV. Legibility. 



II. Stamps. - - 



1. Place. 

3. IIow put on. 



MOW TO TEACH IT. 159 

" How shall I teach the pupil to write a letter ? " 
Try the following method : — Ask him, — 

1. What are you going to write about ? Get the 
real fact or incident, and have him write it down in 
proper form, as his subject. 

2. What is the first thing you wish to tell about ? 
Tell him to write that down by itself, as he wishes 
to tell it. Proceed thus, Mdth the several items, 2d, 
3d, and so on, till he thinks of nothing more. So 
far, you have the material. Now for the order. 
Ask him, — 

3. Which of these really ought to come first ? If 
he hits on. the right one, have him number it 1. If 
he is wrong, point out the right item. Proceed in 
the same way to find the proper second item, and so 
on to the end. This settles the order. Now con- 
sider the paragraphs. Ask, — 

4. Which of these seem to belong together in a 
group ? Have them numbered a second time, as ^ 
1, 2. etc. Show the proper method for spacing the 
first lines of paragraphs. Attend next to the expres- 
sion. Ask, — 

5. What ungrammatical words or expressions do 
you find ? Whatever such he finds, correct by in- 
terlining. Such as he fails to find, point out and 
have corrected. 

6. What long words can be changed for short, 
simple words, or those in better taste ? Have the 
changes made by interlining. Next, consider the 
capitals and punctuation. Ask, — 

7. What words should begin with capitals ? Have 
these marked. 



160 LETTER-WRITING. 

8. Where do we want a full separation ? Have 
the period inserted. And so proceed, if other points 
are needed. 

Now require a complete draught to be made. 
When this is done, examine and correct it under the 
pupil's close observation, explain the corrections 
made. Lastly, require a carefully written copy 
according to the corrections. 

Classification of Letters. 

The classification given in the tabulation should he 
written on the board and explained by the teacher. 

The names of the classes are so plainly descriptive 
as to render formal definitions unnecessary. 

Structure of Letters. 

This means an arrangement of its several parts, so 
as to present a pleasing appearance. 

Materials. 

Paper. — The materials for letter writing should be 
of good quality. Good materials cost only a trifle 
more than poor ones. The paper for business cor- 
respondence should be white or tinged with blue. 
The size of the paper should be adapted to the size 
of the envelope to be used. 

In business correspondence, it is not in good taste 
to use tinted or colored paper. 

IivE. — Avoid the use of all fancy inks, and use sim- 
ple black ; all other colors fade. 

Enyelopes. — Do not use envelopes of irregular and 
fancy shape, and let them be adapted in size and 
color, to the paper. 



THE HEADING. 161 

Sealing-Wax. — This is now principally used on 
valuable letters and packages. It adds very much to 
the appearance of a letter to seal it neatly with wax. 
Heading. 

The heading includes the place and date. If your 
letter is to consist of one page only, the proper posi- 
tion for the heading is on the first line. If less than 
one page, proportionally lower ; so that the space at 
the bottom of the page may be equal to the space at 
the top. Begin the heading a little to the left of the 
middle of the page, and if it is too long to be placed 
within the limit of a half line, let it be extended for 
completion to the next line below. It usually occu- 
pies two lines, but never more than three ; when two 
lines are used the second should begin farther to the 
right than the first. Business letters should always 
be dated at the top ; some place the date at the bot- 
tom ; this form is used more generally in social cor- 
respondence. When placed at the bottom it must 
be near the left edge of the paper, one line below the 
signature. 

Place. — The Heading of a letter should be self- 
explaining. The name of the State and the County 
should always be expressed, unless the letter is ad- 
dressed to a very large city, like New York or Bos- 
ton. If the letter is written in a city, the street and 
number should be expressed. The Heading should 
he full and complete, so that when a person answers 
the message, he may know where to send it. 

Date. — The date includes the month, day of the 
month, and the year; if letters are used after the 



162 LETTER-WRITING. 

figures, let them be placed on a line with the figures, 
and not a little above the line. The best letter writers 
omit the letters after the figures, although it is by no 
means improper to use them. 

Punctuation. — The parts of the Heading should 
be separated by commas, and a period should be 
placed at the close of the Heading and after abbre- 
viations. The ordinal adjectives 1st, 5th, 27th, are 
not abbreviations, and they should be followed by a 
comma. The Heading is an abridged form of a sen- 
tence, composed of phrases, and plirases are usually 
set off by commas. 

REMTARKS. 

The teacher should write, or have written, on the 
board the correct form of the Heading of a letter, call- 
ing attention to the position and arrangement of the 
parts, capital letters, and punctuation. He should 
require the pupils to copy the correct form on their 
slates, spell the words, and give the correct position 
and arrangement of all the parts. 

Various Headings should be given by the teacher 
until the pupils are thoroughly familiar with them. 
A few lessons methodically given, will secure M.h.%- 

TERY. 

Introduction* 

Position. — The names of the persons to be ad- 
dressed should be given on the line below the head- 
ing, at the right and near the marginal line. It may 
occupy one, two, or three lines; the first line ot the 
address should contain the name and title alone ; it 
should begin even with all the lines of the page, ex- 



THE NAME Aim TITLE. 163 



cept the heading and those that commence par- 
agraphs. 

Directions. — The directions should be as full in the 
address as in the heading ; the letter should be self- 
explaining ; it should contain not only the name and 
residence of the writer, but also the name and resi- 
dence of the person to whom it is written. 

The American form of correspondence places the 
address before the salutation, except in letters of an 
oflEicial character ; then it is placed at the close of the 
letter, at the left of the signature : this corresponds 
with the English style. ' 

Xame and Title. 

The name should be written in full ; for example, 
we write to J. C. Knox, Colorado Springs, Colorado; 
as it stands now it may mean James C. Knox or Jen- 
nie C. Knox. It is better, unless the party is well- 
known, to write the full Christian name, and not the 
initials of the name. Too much pains cannot be taken 
in the address of letters and the superscription of 
envelopes. In New York city there are two hundred 
persons by the name of John Smith ; in order to 
avoid confusion and allay the passion of mail carriers, 
it would be better for all correspondents to write the 
full name, the proper title and the name and the num- 
ber of the street. 

Title. — The common titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss 
and Esq. Mr. is an abbreviation of Mister ; Mrs. is 
an abbreviation of Mistress, but pronounced Misses, 
which is written Mrs.; Miss is not considered ac 



164 LETTER- WRITIXG. 

al)breviation, but a contraction, from the word Mis- 
tress. When this title is applied to two or more 
ladies of the same name, both forms are used by 
grammarians, Miss and Misses ; the latter may be con- 
sidered as the prevailing usage. Esq. is an abbrevia- 
tion of Esquire, 

Salutation. — This term should never be omitted; 
it expresses politeness, respect or affection. The term 
employed in writing to a man is hir^ Bear Sir, or My 
dear Sir. 

The word Dear implies that the parties are ac- 
quainted ; My dear Sir, suggest intimacy or friend- 
sJiip. 

In addressing a married woman, the following 
form is usual, including the title and christian name 
of the husband : 

Mrs. Dr. J. J. Anderson, 

105 Madison Avenue, 

Albany, N. Y. 
Madam, — 

In the use of the salutation, it is better to be too 
formal than too familiar. 

To use a term of affection when no endearment ex- 
ists between the parties, is highly improper. It is 
assuming undue familiarity, not warrantable in busi- 
ness correspondence. Such a term prefixed to the 
name addressed as. Dear Brown, or Friend Hayes, or 
even Dear Sir, or My dear Sir, is not proper in busi- 
ness messages. 

The salutation used in addressing a woman mar- 
ried or a single woman, is Madam, Dear Madam, or 
3fy dear Madam. In writing to a young unmarried 



' ' D EAR MISS BLANK. " 165 

lady, it is customary to omit the salutation and ad- 
dress her with the title prefixed to her surname, as 
Miss Howell^ and then write the address at the bottom 
of the letter, at the left. 

J. Willis Westlake says, " In writing to a lady who 
is a stranger or a mere acquaintance, persons often 
feel a delicacy (unnecessarily so, it seems to us,) 
about saying 'Dear Miss Blank,' or 'Dear Madam.' 
Dear does not mean any more in ' Dear Miss,' than 
it does in 'Dear Sir.' Surely no lady would hesi- 
tate to use the latter form of address in writing to a 
gentleman of her acquaintance; and the gentleman 
would be a fool to suppose she intended to make love 
to him by so doing. When Miss or Dear Miss is used 
in the introduction it must be followed by the lady's 
name; as 'Miss Flora May,' 'Dear Miss Barnes.'" 

We should use the full form in the salutation ; as, 
Gentlemen, not Oents; Sir, not Sr ; Dear, and not Dr. 

Place of the Salutation. — The salutation should 
begin at the same distance from the marginal line as 
the paragraphs. 

If the address is omitted at the beginning of the 
letter, the salutation should be placed on the first line 
below the heading, a little to the right of the margin, 
so that the places of beginning the paragraphs may 
be uniform and correspond to the salutation. 

Punctuation. — Place a period at the end of the 
address. The address and the salutation are not in 
the same grammatical person, the address being in 
the third person, and the salutation in the second. 

Authorities disagree about the punctuation mark 
after the salutation. 



166 LETTER-WRITING. 

Some place a colon ; some a semi-colon ; and others 
a comma. The best authorities use the comma, when 
the body of the letter begins one line below the salu- 
tation, and a comma and a dash when the body of 
the letter begins on the same line as the salution. Xn 
the English form of letter writing, the salutation, 
simply, is placed at the beginning of the body of the 
letter, and the address at the close of the letter, :■. little 
at the left. 

This form is used in America by correspondents, 
and it is believed that the best usage sanctions it. 

Margin. — Always preserve a margin in letters, and 
in all forms of manuscripts. The French preserve 
two margins, one at the left, and one at the right ; 
this adds to the appearance of the letter, making it 
correspond to the printed page; in America only the 
left margin is retained. The introduction to social 
and miscellaneous letter?, in form, is just the same 
as in business letters. 

REMARKS. 

All of the above points in the introduction of a let- 
ter, should be neatly written on the board. The 
teacher should call attention to each part, its exact 
form and place. 

He should require the pupils to copy the correct 
form on their slates ; and upon review, require them 
to spell the words, give the correct position and 
arrangement of all the parts, and punctuate the intro- 
duction correctly. At this point in the instruction 
review the heading and the introduction. 

It is delightful to be able to write a good letter, and 



PARAGRAPHING. 167 



it is certainly a great pleasure to read one. Surely, 
in this, like every other accomplishment, " practice 
makes perfect," and as it is a valuable one, the pupils 
should at once set to work with a determination to 
conquer the diflSculties of writing. 

THE BODY OF THE LETTER. 

The body of the letter is composed of two parts, 
properly ; the Beginning and the Paragrajphs. It is 
the message itself, exclusive of the Mading^ introduc- 
tion and conclusion. 

The Beginning. — When the address occupies two 
or more lines, the body of the letter should begin di- 
rectly after the salutation, and on the same line ; 
when the salutation is simply used at the beginning 
of the letter, the body of the letter should begin on 
the next line below, little to the right of the salutation. 

The salutation should never be placed so far to the 
right of the sheet of paper, as to leave room for only 
one or two words after it. 

Paragraphing. 

The same ruks should govern us in writing, as in 
printing, with the exception of the right margin. The 
paragraph should always be used, when necessary. 
It indicates the beginning of a new subject, or of dif- 
ferent and disconnected things. 

The first word of a paragraph begins farther to the 
right than the beginning of the other lines. The first 
word of the first paragraph commences after the salu- 
tation ; the first word of the second paragraph should 
fall directly under the salutation, and so on with the 



1 68 LETTER- WEITIXG. 

remaining paragraphs. All paragraphs should begin 
at the same distance from the marginal line. Preserve 
this order and it will add to the mechanical structure 
of the letter. 

THE CONCLUSION. 

The conclusion of a letter is the part added to the 
body of the letter. 

Position and Arrangement. — It should be placed 
at the foot of the letter. 

Complimentary Close. — This includes the lan- 
guage, the closing compliments ; it should begin a 
little to the right, but near the middle of the first line 
below the body of the letter, about the same distance 
from marginal line as the heading. They may be 
broken into two lines, but it is not necessary. 

If composed of two lines, the second should com- 
mence a little to the right of the first; commence the 
first line with a capital letter, also the second. 

Signature. — In writing the signature, begin a lit- 
tle at the right of the complimentary close, on the 
next line below. A letter should always be signed 
in a legible hand, and this includes accuracy, sym- 
metry, uniformity and neatness. The full name 
should be written. Thousands of letters are dropped 
into the post offices having no name subscribed. It 
is well to write the address under the signature if 
you wish an answer to your letter; particularly if 
your letter is mailed at some other point aside from 
your regular residence. 

Punctuation. — A comma should be placed after 
the complimentary close, and a period after the 
signature. 



THE SUPEBSCBIPTION. 169 

Folding. — Neatly folding a letter will add very 
much to its appearance. This is a simple thing, but 
it should be learned. 

Note-Paper. — Fold up the bottom so that it shall 
be nearly equal to the width of the envelope, (sup- 
posing that the envelope is adapted to the paper,) 
turn down the top in the same manner, and press the 
folds neatly together. 

Letter-Paper. — Turn the bottom edge up so that 
it shall be nearly equal to the length of the envelope; 
then proceed in the same manner as above. 

This form may be observed in folding for an ordi- 
nary envelope ; if the letter is to be enclosed in an 
official envelope it must be folded thus: Turnup the 
lower edge equal to the width of the envelope, and 
fold the top down over it 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 

We have finished the letter and are now ready to 
superscribe it. This superscription is written on the 
outside of the envelope. It consist of the name and 
title, post-office, county and state. 

Position. — Every item must be on a separate line. 
The first line consisting of the name and title, should 
begin below and at the left of the centre; the 
second should begin a little farther to the right ; the 
third a little farther than the second, and so on. 

The spaces between the lines and the space below 
the last, should be equal. 

Great pains should be taken in writing the super- 
scription^ and the full form should always be used. 
Each part should be written legibly. It is always 



170 LETTER-WRITING. 

the safer way to express the name of the county un- 
less the letter is directed to a large city. 

Punctuation. — Place a period after abbreviations; 
when the abbreviation is at the end of a line, place 
a comma after each line, and a period at the close. 

Stamp. 

A stamp should always be placed upon the envelope. 
It should be placed upon the upper right-hand cor- 
ner, about a sixteenth of an inch from the upper and 
the right edges. Pains should be taken to put it on 
carefully. 

PRACTICAL HINTS IN LETTER WRITING. 

Thus far in the discussion of the subject of letter 
writing, we have called attention to the structure of 
the letter, the mechanical part. Simple as it may 
seem, it will require study on the part of those 
teachers who are not familiar with it. There are 
two other divisions, important in themselves, the 
Rhetoric of Letters and the Literature of Letters, 
which should be made a study, if the teacher is not 
already familiar with them. 

We cannot give an extended discussion of the 
above named divisions, but will throw out a few 
practical hints, calling attention to the Rhetoric and 
Literature of Letters. 

Interlineations. — This is a habit, and must be 
overcome. The insertion of letters or words exhibits 
to the reader a degree of carelessness, that is not ex- 
cusable. 

Copy and re-copy, until every part of the letter 



SPECIAL BINTS. 171 



pleases the eye. An hour or two devoted to careful 
copying will secure the result. 

Blots. — Never allow a blot to be seen in your let- 
ters ; it is slovenly. 

Flourishes. — Avoid flourishing in letter writing ; 
it is indicative of a kind of dash-and-display charac- 
ter. A person of this stamp would be quite apt to 
wear an Alaska diamond pin, alligator boots, steel- 
pen coat, part his hair in the middle and use a slim 
cane. 

Ckoss-lines. — If it is necessary to write more mat- 
ter than can be properly placed on the pages of a let- 
ter, use another sheet of paper. There is no excuse 
for the person to write on the margins of the sheet 
and over the body of the letter. It is in very poor 
taste, to say the least. 

Underlinlngs. — In reading, certain words are 
emphatic, and when properly emphasized increase 
the intensity of the thought. 

In writing, it also adds force to the expression to 
to underline certain words ; but indiscriminate under- 
lining ceases to add eflect. 

Erasnreso 

Avoid erasures ; it indicates a lack of interest and 
attention to the subject. The same rules should hold 
good in writing as in printing. 

It disfigures the letter and it is a sign of careless- 
ness, and it is always the better way to rewrite the 
letter, if there is time, than to send it subject to the 
criticisms of others. 



172 LETTER-WRITING. 

Postscript. 

This is something added to a letter after it is prop- 
erly finished, and should generally be avoided. 

When the writer has received new information af- 
ter the letter is finished, it may then be added. It is 
not best to get into the habit of appending postscripts. 
No topic of importance, compliment or aflection, 
should be expressed in the postscript. 

The Character &. 

The character & may be used between the sur- 
names of a business firm or between the initial letters 
of Christian names ; but as a rule it should not be 
employed to take the place of the word for which it 
stands. 

Figures for Words. 

Figures are used for dates, time of day, rates, quan- 
tities, prices, and in bills, book-keeping, aggregate 
amounts, etc. In commercial paper it is best to use 
both figures and words. 

Lead Pencil Writing. 

Business letters are generally preserved, and as 
lead pencil marks are easily blurred or erased, it is 
not business-like to use the lead pencil in correspond- 
ence. 

Bombast. 

Use the simplest terms ; descriptive words and 
fine words are not used by educated people : young 
persons do not like to use simple nouns, but resort 
to the use of adjectives, high sounding words, pom- 
pous expression and parade of language. 



WITAT WORDS TO AVOID. 173 



The language of simplicity should characterize all 
correspondence. 

Slang Words. 

The words we use are an index to the mind and 
heart. Your letter will be accepted as a type of youi 
mind and an index to your thoughts. No gentleman 
or lady will resort to the use of slang terms. Slang 
phrases are utterly inconsistent with true dignity 
of thought, word or deed. 

Foreign Words. 

It is not considered a good taste to use foreign 
words, unless necessity requires them. It is belter to 
use pure English. 

Tautology. 

This is quite common with inexperienced writers; 
when a fact has been stated once, — the point made 
distinctly and clearly, it only confuses the idea, to 
attempt a repetition. 

Books on Letter-Writing. 

Analysis of Letter Writing ; Ivison Blakeman, 
Taylor & Co., New York. $1.50. 

How to Write Letters, Sower, Potts & Co., Phila- 
delphia. $1.00. 



in LETTER-WRITIXG. 

MODELS OF HEADING. 



Model 1. 



Model 2. 
Model 3. 

^ yy y ' ^ 0/ 



Model 4. 



Model 5. 

22 Clinton Street, 

Troy N.Y., May 1\, 1877. 



MODEL ADDRESSES. 175 

MODELS OF INTRODUCTION. 

Model 1. 




>^i^^l!&^^^«^<?^ . 



Model 2. 

C ^ y^^/C^^f^^,^. <=:^^^4c/c/^ Q^c€^<g^^^€>4-^ 






Model 3. 



176 LETTER-WBITING. 



inodel 4. 






^y^^e^-cf, '^^. 




Model 5. 



'eal Quaaani, 



MODEL INSTEVCTIONS. 177 



ENGLISH INTRODUCTION. 



Model 1. 

Dear Sir, — 

Tours was received, etc. 

Mr. James Doe, 

25 Benton Street, 

Albany, N. Y. 



Model 2. 

Gentlemen, — 

Send me 500 barrels of Sugar, etc. 

Dexter & Jones, 
21 Broadway, 
Albany J N. T. 



178 LETTER- IT BITI^ G. 

CONCLUSION. 



FOK SOCIAL LETTERS, tlie following fonns are 
used : 

Your friend ; Yours loitJi esteem ; 
Yours very respectfully ; Yours nery 
sincerely^ etc. 

For business letters, tlie following forms are 
used : 

Truly yours ; Yours respectfully ; 
Yours very truly ; Yours. 



For official letters : 

Iliave the honor to he, Sir^ 

Your obedient servant, 

a L. 



I have the honor to he, 

Very respectfully, 
Your most ohedlent servant, 

H. C. D. 



I am, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

S. II. 



Yery respectfully, 

Your obedient servant, 

Q. A. 



A SISTER'S LETTER. 179 



FORM FOR SOCIAL LETTER. 



Canandaigua, New York, 

My dear Sister^ — 

In reply to your letter 
of tlie IQth inst. I heg to assure you 
that I shall he happy to meet you^on 
Wednesday next at Albany^ at the 
hour, mentioned hy you. 

We are pleased to Jcnow that you 
will msit us. 

Your loving sister^ 

Mary Perkins, 

Miss Lula Perkins, 
OorTiam Street, 

Canandaigua, 



180 LETTER-WRITiya. 



BUSINESS LETTER. 



Albany, N. F., 3Iay 28, 1877. 

Supt. 0. B. Bruce, 

BingJiainton, JV. Y. 
Sir, — Tours of Marcli IQtli teas duly 
received. It gives me pleasure to in- 
form you that I sJiall he able to accom- 
pany you on the proposed excursion 
next August. 

Yours very respectfully, 
William Watson, 
288 Madison Ave., 
Albany, N. T. 



MODEL SUPERSCRIPTIONS. 181 

FORM OF SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Mr. 0zra. WiUer^ 



Miss aS^nna. W, J?oo^ 
SOS SiJi^ a^veTvuo^ 



Messrs. SmiiJi/ ^ <^e'r]ci7^s^ 
2S ^xoAoyn^o Si.^ 

MoeAosior. 



Miss <:^r(ic& Me^ynolds^ 



7 



Mo/icovio/^ 

<^ew Work 

Senesee 'Wo, 



0olor(ido^ 

0olorcido SpringfSj 
^a/77be'S 3^?oox. 



ARITHMETIC. 



INTRODUCTON. 



In order to teach arithmetic successfully the teacher 
should have an idea of the subject as a whole. The 
most difficult part of the subject — as in all subjects — 
is the fundamental part ; and unless that is thoroughly 
taught, the after results will be unsatisfactory. It 
must be admitted that more time is given to the sub- 
ject of mathematics in the schools than to any other 
study. 

It is an important study, but it should not receive 
an undue proportion of time, — it should not be pur- 
sued at the expense nor to the neglect of other studies 
of equal importance, as language, reading, spelling, 
etc. 

Nothing is gained by passing rapidly through the 
primary part. Pupils should be perfectly familiar 
with all the fundamental operations ; able to write 
numbers with five and six periods without hesitation ; 
add rapidly and accurately long columns of figures ; 
and perform all computations in the fundamental 
rules with dispatch. The first part of arithmetic 
should be simple, and the lesson should be given 
orally by the teacher. More attention should be 
given to the study of processes than to analysis — 



TOO MUCH TIME TO ABITHMETIC. 183 

computationcom.es first, then calculation. The subject 
should be presented in its logical order. — every part 
held up separately and individually, and the fact 
fixed in the mind. 

When the truth is once understood, the pupil 
should be trained to work skilfully, thoughtfully 
and accurately. 

Much reasoning should not be required of the 
pupils during the primary course. The aim should 
be to make them see how to do. 

But little attention should be given to definitions; if 
used they should be fully understood and explained, 
otherwise they may be committed to memory, and 
this is not necessary during this period. The pupils 
should be able to explain the processes, but they 
should not be required to commit the i-ules to memory 
nor the principles. 

Definitions, rules and principles are deductions, — 
do not burden the children with these. 

The Science of Arithmetic Receives too Much 
Attention. 

Definitions, rules and principles have to do with 
the science of arithmetic. 

Thomas Hill, says, in his book, *'The True Order 
of Studies," that *' the science of arithmetic receives 
so much attention that the art is neglected." The 
primary object of arithmetic should not be to develop 
the reasoning power, but to make pupils skilful in 
computation. 

He further says, that *' A child should not be 
expepfetj Of req^uired to reason at an early age. Any 



184 ARITHMETIC. 



direct training of the logical powers before the age 
of twelve years is premature, and in most cases, a 
positive injury to the pupil. The common sense 
view would give facts before reasoning. Reasoning 
upon facts is the work of a maturer mind." Grant- 
ing this to be true, arithmetic is taught backwards 
in many cases ; beginning with reason instead of 
observation. 

For the reason above quoted rules and definitions 
should not be committed to memory until a later 

period. 

First Ideas of Number. 

The teacher should begin the lessons in number 
with objects, using pencils, crayons, pebbles, books ; 
also a numeral frame. 

The object is to lead the children to the percep- 
tion of the idea of numbers, as exemplified in sur- 
rounding objects. 

The idea to be gained at first is that of one, as it is 
the basis of all arithmetical calculations. 

The teacher should hold up one object before the 
class; as one pencil, one crayon, etc., until eveiy 
child understands what is meant by one. 

Tell the pupil that one is the word that expresses 
*' the how many," the number. 

After you have taught the word one, then teach 
the character that represents it. 

" Develop the idea, then give the term ; educate 
the eye, then employ the hand ; cultivate the use of 
language, then exercise memory." 

Pupils should not count one, two, three, etc.. 



THE UNIT. 185 



naming the abstract term ; they should say one 
pencil, one crayon, one book. 

Proceed in the same manner to teach two ; by 
holding up two objects of different kinds. After 
they are made familiar with the number of objects, 
let marks be made on the blackboard ; then the 
characters that represent the number of marks. Let 
children reproduce at their seats the work given at 
the board by the teacher. 

Value of Numbers, 

At this point see that the pupils get the idea of 

the value of number, by comparing a greater group 

cf objects. 

Order of Numbers. 

Care should be taken to teach the order of num- 
bers, so that the children can tell what number 
comes before and what after any given number. This 
may be illustrated with the class, or the picture of a 
ladder. 

Teach the pupils in the same way to write num- 
bers to 99. Give no instruction about units and 

tens, etc., until a later period. 

Teach the subject so thoroughly that your suc- 
cessor will not be obliged to instruct in it. 

Numeration and Notation. 

THE UNIT. 

The pupils have been taught thus far to deal with 
ones. They are now supposed to be familiar with 
numbers to 1000. They may now be taught that 
there is another name — unit, which means a single 



186 AmTHMETlC. 

tbiug — that may be used with the figures, as one unit, 
two units, etc. 

THE TEN. 

At this stage the teacher may provide several small 
sticks, about the size of matches. Take several 
sticks and let the pupils count ten ; tie these up in a 
small bundle and call it one ten ; proceed in the same 
manner until ten bundles have been made ; now let 
them count the bundles. Next let them see that one 
bundle contains ten sticks, or ten units, or ten ; two 
bundles, twenty sticks, or twenty units, or twenty ; 
and so proceetl until you reach the hundred. 

Write numbers on the board to correspond to the 
object and groups ; let them read the numbers, as 
one ten and one unit, one ten and two units ; twenty, 
two tens ; thirty, three tens, etc. 

>iotation. 

"When the pupils can readily read columns of units 
and tens, they may be required to write these num- 
bers on the slate. The teacher may dictate the num- 
bers. Let them write numbers below 100, and ask 
them what they used to write the number. For 
example, write 8G. How did you write it ? With 8 
tens and 6 units, etc. 

Nnmeration. 

They have been already taught that ten units make 
one ten ; and ten tens make one hundred. Now let 
them read the numbers. For example 123 ; three 
units, two tens, one hundred, read 123 units. The 
teacher, after sufficient drill, should obtain bundles 
with 100 sticks. 



ORDERS OF XmiTS. 187 

Supplement these illustrations with dictation exer- 
cises, and so proceed until the pupils are made 
familiar and can write numbers readily from dicta- 
tion on the slates and at the board, and read their 

values. 

Orders of Units. 

The pupils must have a clear idea that units may 
differ in size and value — that one of anything is a 
unit, whether large or small. One bushel is a unit ; 
one dollar is a unit; one cent is a unit. They have 
already been taught that numbers are built up of 
simple "ones," so far as 100 ; that each ten is con- 
sidered as a whole, or 1 ten ; that each hundred is 
regarded as a whole, or 1 hundred. 

Now they are prepared to see what is meant by a 
unit of the first order, of the second order, of the 
third order, etc 

This step is sometimes omitted in teaching number. 
It is a very important one ; it should be carefully 
taught and the pupils thoroughly drilled upon it. 

Let them see that it is the position of a figure in a 
number that determines its value. 

Teachers are too ambitious in advancing pupils in 
arithmetic. 

Some teachers will promote to higher classes pupils 
that could not pass an examination in notation and 
numeration. Frequently we find pupils ciphering in 
percentage, that fail in writing and reading a number 
of four figures. Never let pupils pass beyond the 
fundamental rules until they are familiar with them, 
and are able to readily apply them. 



188 AEITBMETIG. 



They will make slow progress in the advanced 
steps if this is not understood,— they will make 
rapid progress if it is thoroughly understood. 

Teach so thoroughly that your successor may not 
be obliged to unteach what has been taught. 

Too much pains cannot be taken with notation, 
numeration and addition, The law of increase and 
decrease may be thoroughly developed with these 
rules 

Again we repeat, "not how much but bow well." 

Adding. 

OBJECTS. 

Begin the subject in the same way as the first, with 
objects. Marks upon the blackboard may be used 
after the children have become familiar with adding 
objects. Use the numeral frame but see that the 
children do not confound counting with adding. 

Concrete Numbers. 

Let pupils add concrete numbers without having 
the objects before them. When they become very 
expert in computation, let them add numbers con- 
cretely from one to fifty. The teacher should not 
leave this division of the subject until the children 
can announce the sum of any two concrete numbera 
that may be given, instantly. Confine the problems 
to numbers less than ten. 

Adding by Figuresr 

These exercises at first should be very simple : 
first, by adding one to all the numbers less than ten ; 
then two ; then three, etc. 



ADDITION. 189 



After sufficient drill has been given, and the pupils 
can give instantly the sums of all numbers less than 
ten, proceed in the same way with all the decades to 
one hundred. This grouping of jnumbers will form 
a pleasing and profitable drill. Do not let the pupils 
add numbers in the following manner : For example, 
What is the sum of 8 apples, 7 apples and 4 apples ? 
7 apples and 8 apples are 15 apples ; 15 apples and 4 
apples are 19 apples. Rather have them say : 8 
apples, 15 apples, 19 apples. Simply anounce the 
results and do not allow them to count. 
Addition Tables. 

The teacher should see that the tables are thor- 
oughly committed to memory by requiring pupils to 
recite them backward and forward regularly and ir- 
regularly. Excite emulation among the members of 
the class in regard to the mechanical execution of 
the work, because careless habits formed will ever be 
a source of annoyance to both teacher and pupil. 

Construct the addition tables at first by the use of 
objects. 

Great care should be taken that the pupils be not 
hurried over these early steps too rapidly. Teach 
the combination of only one number at a lesson. 
*' Make haste slowly." Teach them to add rapidly 
and correctly. 

German Method of Teaching Rapid Additionn 
2 3 

^ 2 + 4 ^ ^ 3 + 4 ^ 

2 + 6 3 + 6 

4 5 1 

(1.) (3.) 



190 ARITHMETIC. 



4 

^ 4 + 2 

4 + 8 


6 


9 
6 


5 

2 8 

5 + 3 ■"■ 

5 + 7 4 


8 






3 7 



(3.) 






(4.) 


2 

9 5 

^ 2 + 3 

3 2 + 7 


8 
1 ' 




4 

4 + 5 


4 

7 






9 


(5.) 






(6.) 



In circle No. 1 begin with 2, add 4, and write the 
results about the circle. When the result exceeds 
nine, write the right hand figure only. Beginning 
with 1, passing to the right, we have the following : 
2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 34, 38, 42, etc. ; again 
beginning with 2, passing to the left, we have the 
following : 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, 82, 38, 44, 50, etc. 

In order to form the circular tables, take any num- 
ber less than ten and add. a number to it, and con- 
tinue the successive additions until you repeat the 
first figure ; write these numbers about the circle. 

Begin with the number 1, and add the number to 
10 ; and so on with each number. 



IT IS TEE FIRST STEP WEICTK COSTS. 191 

This exercise will produce great ambition in the 
school, and all pupils like to take part in it. At 
first call on the pupils to recite in concert ; subse- 
quently, by dividual drill. Time them, aud see how 
many seconds they will require to add 100. Only 
six of the tables are given ; many others may be 
made by the teacher. The Germans have attained 
grand results through these circular tables. In con- 
nection with these exercises pupils should be required 
to add columns of figures ; at first, short columns, 
with figures less than five ; gradully increase until 
they become ready and rapid in computation. 

An experience of eight years at institutes has 
revealed sad results in adding simple columns of 
figures. In many instances the teachers had not 
been taught to add properly in their youth, and I have 
frequently received twenty-five different answers to 
a problem like the following : 

Add 8989, 7898, 7897, and 9876. 

The pupils should be taught the combinations of 
numbers ; combining the 4 and the 5 will always 
produce a 9 ; a 6 and a 5 a 1 ; 9 and 5 a 4 ; 8 and 5 a 
3 ; 7 and 5 a 2, etc., and by a daily systematical drill 
the pupils will overcome this hesitancy, which is a^ 
common fault in American schools. No rule in 
Arithmetic is used so much as addition, and great 
care should be taken with primary classes. 

We are \h\iB particular and emphatic^ concerning 
the early steps of mathematical education, because 
it is " the first step which costs." Much more labor 
is required to unlearn than to learn. The teachers 



192 ARITHMETIC. 



for the younger classes should possess particular 
aptness for imparting instruction. Such teachers 
deserve and should receive the highest wages. 

Analysis of Problems in Addition. 

"WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

After the pupils have mastered the fundamental 
rules, and their reasoning powers begin to develop, 
the teacher should require an analysis of the prob 
lem. 

The mechanical operation — the doing part, should 
not be confounded with the logical operation — the 
thinking part. 

Problem in abstract numbers : 

What is the sum of 8764,9789,5786, and 9843? 

Mechanical Part. 

8764 
9789 
5786 
9843 



34,182 
Logical or Analytical Part. 

Analysis : — I have written the numbers so that 
units of the same order stand under each other. 
For convenience I will begin at the right hand; adding 
the first order, the sum is 22 units. As ten units 
make one ten, 22 units are equal to 2 tens and 2 
units ; I will write the 2 units in the order of units, 
and add the two tens to the order of tens ; and so pro 



8VBTBAGTI0N, 193 

ceed with each order, giving the reasons for every 
step. 

Require the pupils to deduce the rule from the 
analysis. 

Analysis of Concrete Problem. 

Problem .-—If a horse cost $120, and a wagon $110, 
and a harness $90, what will be the entire expense ? 

Anaysis: — The entire expense will be the sum of 
$120, lilOf and $90 ; equal to $220. 

The simplest and the most concise analysis should 
be taught to the children. No unnecessary words 
should be allowed in the analysis of a problem. 

Subtraction. 

This subject should be taught as addition, begin- 
ning with objects. First, by taking away one object, 
then two, etc. After they have become familiar 
with this process, then use marks on the board, sub- 
sequently using concrete numbers without having 
objects before them. At first ask the pupils to answer 
in concert, followed by individual drill. 

Subtracting by Figures. 

After the children have become familiar with the 
preceding processes, the teacher may write numbers 
on the board as far as 9, and require the children to 
subtract one, then two, then three, etc. Vary the 
processes. 

Subtracting by figures when the figure in the sub- 
trahend is greater in value than the corresponding 
figure in the minuend. 

Problem : Subtract 456 from 824, 



194 ABITHMETIC. 



Mechanical Operation* 



834 ^, 7 11 14 
456 °^ 4 5 6 



368 3 6 8 
Logical, or Analytical Operation. 

1 have written the numbers as in addition, writing 
the subtrahend under the minuend. 

Begin at the right hand to subtract. 6 units from 
4 units I cannot take ; take 1 ten from the 3 tens and 
it equals 10 units ; 10 units and 4 units are 14 units ; 

6 units from 14 units equal 8 units; write underneath 
in the units order 

Five tens from 1 ten I cannot take ; take one hun- 
dred from 8 hundred and it equals 10 tens ; 10 tens 
and 1 ten equal 11 tens ; 5 tens from 11 tens equal 6 
tens ; write it underneath in the tens order. Four 
hundred from 7 hundred. leave 3 hundred, etc. 

By this process it will be observed that the form of 
the minuend was changed without altering its value. 
The subtrahend in form remained unchanged. The 
teacher should see that the pupils understand that 8 
hundred, 3 tens and 4 units are of the same value as 

7 hundred, 11 tens and 14 units. 

This is a simple analysis and easily understood. 

Second Analysis: — I cannot take 6 units from 4 
units ; will add 10 units to 4, equal 14 units ; 6 units 
from 14 units equal 8 units ; as I have added 10 units 
to the minuend, in order to preserve the equality, I 
must add 10 units or 1 ten to the subtrahend ; adding 
1 ten to 5 tens equal 6 tens • 6 tens from 3 tens I can- 



MINJJENB PROBLEM, i95 



not take ; I will add 10 tens to 2 tens, equal to 13 
tens ; 6 tens from 12 tens equal 6 tens ; as I have 
added 10 tens or 1 hundred to the minuend I must 
add 1 hundred to the hundreds in the subtrahend ; 4 
hundred and one hundred are 5 hundred, and 5 hun- 
dred from 8 hundred leave 3 hundred. This is gov- 
erned by the principle which says, adding equal num- 
bers to both minuend and subtrahend does not alter 
the value of the remainder. 

This analysis should be required in addition to the 
first, but not preferred to it. 

When there are Ciphers in the Minuend. 

ProUem ,•— Subti-act 456 from 1000. 

Mechanical Operation. 

9 9 10 
10 

4 5 6 



5 4 4 

Analysis : — There are no units in the units order, 
no tens in the tens order, no hundreds in the hun- 
dreds order. In 1000 there are 9 hundred, 9 tens and 
10 units. 6 units from 10 units equal 4 units ; 5 tens 
from 9 tens equal 4 tens ; 4 hundred trom 9 hundred 
equal 5 hundred, (The form of the minuend has 
been changed, but not its value.) Deduce the rule. 

Mnltiplication. 

As in the preceding rules, begin this subject with 
objects, and build up all the tables at first with 
objects. 



196 ARITHMETIC, 



Analysis of a Concrete Problem. 

Pivblem : — What will 40 books cost at $9 apiece? 

AnaJi/sis : — Since one book cost $9, 40 books will 
cost 40- limes ^9, equal to $o60. 

The teacher should insist that the pupils use the 
true multiplier in all concrete problems. Too much 
attention has evidently been paid to the higher pai'is 
of arithmetic, to the neglect of the very elements. 
The teacher should see that the pupils analyze, or are 
able to analyze, every problem at this stage. 

Arithmetic, if taught logically, is well calculated 
to develop the mental faculties ; if taught mechani- 
cally, as is often the case, a pupil may even pass 
through a book with but little thought. Drill upon 
the multiplication table. Require pupils to say it 
forward, backward and irregularly. 

Division* 

Commence with objects ; ask questions as follows: 
What have I on my table ? One apple. How many 
times can I take one apple from it ? Once. What 
have I placed on my table ? Two pencils. How 
many times can I take one pencil from my table? 
Ttco times. Each may place one watch on his desk. 
How^ many times can you take one watch from your 
desk ? Once. Place three drums on your desk. 
How many times can you take three drums from 
your desk ? Once. How many times can you take 
one drum from the desk ? Three times, &c. 

Place eight books on the desk. How many times 
can you take four books from the desk V 



8 UR TKA CTION MADE CLEAR. 197 

How many times can you take two books ? Once^ 
iwioe^ three timen, four times. How many times can 
you lake one book V Once^ twice, &c. Place sixteen 
birds on the desk. How uiany times can I take four 
birds from them V 

Place ten flags on the desk, and divide them into 
two equal parts ; how many flags in each part ? 
Place nine books on the desk, and divide them into 
three equal parts ; how many in each part ? Take 
away one part, how many jpar!!s will remain ? Take 
away one part, how many books will remain ? 
Place sixteen birds on the desk, and divide them 
into four equal parts ; how many birds are there in 
each part ? 

By the use of oral abstract questions, thus : How 
many two's in 8 ? In 3 ? In 14 ? In 10 ? How 
many times can four be taken from 8 ? From 24 ? 
From 32 ? Twelve is how many times 2 ? How 
many times 4 ? How many times 6? How many 
times are four contained in 8 ? In 12 ? In 20 ? &c. 
Sixteen contains 2 how many times ? Contains 4 ? 
Contains 8? &c. What is one-third of 9? Of 15? 
Of 21 ? Of 18? &c. 

Primary Arithmetic. 

"With the long established methods in arithmetic 
it seems impossible to advance anything that is new. 

Some teach first the subject of addition, then sub- 
traction, etc. Others begin with 1, and teach all 
there is to know about it before passing over to 
another number. Teaching for instance the number 



198 ARITmiETIG. 



1, the}'- mtike the children perform all the operations 
possible within the limits of this number. The 
child has to see and to keep in mind that — 

1 + lr=2, 1x1 = 1 1-1 = 0, 1-T-1 = 1, etc. 

2 + 1 = 3, 3 X 1=3, 2-1 = 1, 2-f-l=2, etc. 
The whole circle of operation up to 3 was ex- 

liaustcd before the child progressed to the number 
3, which w^as to be treated in the same way. 

Why adhere to the more scientific categories of 
addition, etc, in the primary grade, where they do 
not help to make the subject any clearer to the child? 

The first four process are naturally connected, and 
will appear so in the child's mind. 

If you take away 1 from 2, and 1 remains, the 
child in knowing this also understands implicitly 
the opposite process of adding 1 to 1 and its result. 

Multiplication and division are, in the same way, 
nothing but another way for adding and subtracting, 
so that we might say one operation contains, and 
may be shown to contain, all the others. 

"You must teach the child to know the numbers 
in some way or other," but "to know a number 
really means to know also it most simple relations to 
the number contained therein." Any child who 
knows a number and its relation, must be also able 
to perform the operations of addition and subtrac- 
tion, etc., with it, as they are the direct result of 
comparing two numbers with each other. 

Only when the child can perform all these opera^ 
tions, for instance, within the limits of 2, can it be 
supposed really to have a perfect knowledge of this 



CLEAR CONCEPTIONS. 199 

number. This seems to be a rational method and 
worthy of a trial ; it has proved superior in practice 
to the methods in use. 

A full exposition of it may be found in Beebe's 
First Steps Among Figures, published by Davis, 
Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 

Pupils Must Acquire Clear Conceptions 
of Processes. 

Acquaintance with the process is the first step 
towards practical skill in any operation ; and the 
more intelligent it is, the sooner is skill acquired. 

A knowledge of the process must precede any 
attempt to give theory or to supply a rule. Theory, 
in fact, implies that the conceptions it embraces are 
already in the mind, and the rule is universal that it 
springs from or is based on practice. 

The process must be made clear by examples from 
experience, aided in every possible way by sensible 
representations, either objects, marks, or diagrams. 
When these have set forth the process, it should be 
made familiar by well-constructed examples to be 
worked mentally. 

Facility of Computation. 

This, when a process is clear and intelligent, is a 
matter only of memory, and depends on practice. 
The two things to be secured are accuracy and 
rapidity. Some of the devices by which this im- 
portant habit may be established, are, a thorough 
knowledge of all the tables, and much practice in 
computation. 



200 ABITHMETIG. 



Written Analysis* 

The teacher should require the pupils to bring in 
to the daily recitation a written analysis of one or two 
problems. The mechanical process also should be 
required, and the work should be neatly and cor- 
rectly e:xpressed. This work should be examined 
by the teacher, else the pupils will lose interest in 
its performance and become careless in the mechani- 
cal execution. 

Examine and cross-examine the pupils in theik 
work, and see ip they can give a reason for 
every step. 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

1. We cannot impress too strongly upon the 
teacher's mind thai each lesson in arithmetic 
must he at the same time a lesson in language. 
As the pupil in the primary grade should be 
generally held to answer in complete sentences 
with clear and distinct articulation, so especially 
in arithmetic, the teacher should insist on Jiuency, 
smoothness and neatness of exjjression, and lay 
special stress upon the process of the solution of 
each example. As long as the language for the 
number is not perfect, the idea of the number is 
also defective. An example is not done when the 
result has been found, but when it has been solved 
in a proper way. Language is the only test by 
which the teacher can ascertain whether or not 
the pupils have perfectly mastered any step. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 201 

2. Teachers should avoid asking too many 
questions. Such questions, moreover, as by con- 
taining half the answer, prompt the scholar, 
should be omitted. The pupil should do the 
talking as much as possible. 

3. JEvery process ought to he illustrated by 
means of an application to objects. Finger 
lines, or any other objects, will answer the pur- 
pose, but objects of some kind should always be 
presented to the class. 

By this method of teaching the pupil will not 
be able to pass over mmch ground, but what he 
does know, he will know thoroughly. 

No new numbers should be commenced before 
the previous one is perfectly mastered. It would 
he a mistake to supp>ose that in teaching accord- 
ing to this plan, memory is not required on the 
part of the child. Memory is an important 
factor here, as it is in all iiistruction. I say this 
boldly, though I know with some teachers it has 
become almost a crime to say that memory holds 
its place in education. To have a good memory 
is, in their eyes, a sign of stupidity. Reviews 
must frequently and regularly take place, and, 
lastly, propositions must be thoroughly memo- 
rized. 



202 ABITEMETIG. 



Fallacies iu the Analysis of Problems in tlie 
Fuitdamental Rules. 

Problem : — James had five cents and he found seven 
more ; how many had he then ? 

Addition. 

First Step. — James had five cents and he found 
seven more ; how many had he then? 

Second Step — He had as many as the sum of five 
cents and seven cents. 

Third Step — Five cents plus seven cents are twelve 
cents. 

Fourth Step. — Therefore, if James had five cents, 
and he found seven more, he then had twelve cents. 

REMAiiKS. — la the above analysis, — as it is given in 
many schools — the pupils have used fifty-one words. 
No business man in solving this problem, would use 
this rigmarole of words. If the teacher repeats the 
problem, it is not necessary for the pupil to repeat it. 
There is no objection — that is, no plausible one — to 
the pupil's reading the problem from the book. 

The great object sought for in the study of arith- 
metic, is to develop and strengiJien the reasoning powers. 

It is a positive injury to require pupils to commit 
to memory simple arithmetical problems, that are of 
no value whatever after the answer is attained. 

We encourage teachers to use a simple concise 
analysis, instead of requiring pupils to commit to 
memory the formulas found in too many text-books. 
The following analysis is to be preferred, and it is 
used by experienced teachers : — 



ANALYSIS. 203 



Analysis. 

Since James had five cents, and found seven cents, 
he had the sum of five cents and seven sents, equal 
to twelve cents. 

In this analysis we have used twenty-three words ; 

in the first fifty one words. "Therefore," etc., at 

the close of a problem is an unnecessary repetition of 

words. 

Subtraction. 

Analysis.] 

First Step — A boy having seven marbles, lost five 
of them ; how many had he left ? 

Second Step — He had as many left as the difierence 
between seven marbles and five marbles. 

Third Step — Seven marbles minus five marbles are 
two marbles. 

Fonrtli Step — Therefore, if a boy having seven 
marbles lost five of them, he had two left. 

Simplified Analysis. 

Since a boy having seven marbles lost five of them, 
he had left the difference between seven marbles 
and five marbles, equal to two marbles. 

In the first analysis we have used fifty-two words ; 
in the second twenty-five words. 

Multiplication. 

Analysis. 

First Step— At seven dollars a pair, what will five 
pairs of boots cost ? 
Second Step^lt one pair cost seven dollars, five 



204 ARITHMETIC, 



pairs will cost five times seven dollars ; (or more 
frequently, seven pairs which are seven times one 
pair.) 

Third Step — Five times seven dollars are thirty-five 
dollars. 

Fourth Step — Therefore, at seven dollars a pair, 
five pairs will cost thirty-five dollars. 
Simplified Analysis. 

Since one pair cost seven dollars, five pairs will 
cost five times seven dollars, equal to thirty-five 
dollars. 

In the first analysis we have used thirty-four 
words ; in the second seventeen words. 

Division* 

Analysis, 

First Step — If a man laid out one hundred dollars 
for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each one Le 
bought, how many cows did he buy ? 

Second Step — If one cow cost twenty dollars, he 
bought as many cows for one hundred dollars as 
twenty is contained times in one liundred. 

Tihrd Step — Twenty is contained times in one 
hundred, five times. 

Fourth Step — Therefore, if a man laid out one 
hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars 
for each one that he bought, he bought five cows. 

Simplified Analysis, 
He bought as many cows as twenty dollars is con- 
tained times in one hundred dollars, or five times. 
He bought five cows. 



DIVISION. 305 



Some meet with difficulty in analyzing problems 
in division, when they consist of concrete numbers. 
Division is finding how many times one number can 
be subtracted from another of the same kind. 

Dollars can be divided by dollars and by nothing 
else. Yards can be divided by yards, and nothing 
else, and so on for any other things that might be 
mentioned. That dollars can only be divided by 
dollars arises from the fact that division is but a 
short process of finding how many times one number 
or quantity can be subtracted from another, and we 
can subtract only dollars from dollars ; therefore we 
can divide dollars only by dollars. 

Example — Divide $42 equally among 6 men. Now 
we cannot divide $43 by 6 men nor by 6 ; but if we 
give each man a dollar, that will require $G, and $6 
can be subtracted from .142 seven times. Hence 
we can give each man a dollar seven times, or we 
can give him $7 at one time. 

After the operation is performed, we may call the 
7, seven dollars ; then the 6 will be a mere number, 
and thus, indirectly, we may divide $42 by G. 

Practically, however, all such operations are per- 
formed abstractly, as 42, 6, 7, taken as mere num- 
bers, and then mere logic decides upon the names. 

Order of Solving Problems. 

1. Require the pupils to state the conditions and 
the demands of the problem. 

2. Logical operation or analytical steps. 

3. Mechanical operation. 

4. Analysis. 



206 



ABITmiETIG. 



5. Conclusion. 

6. Deduction of the rule- 

7. Definitions. 

8. Tabulated review. 

The study and solution of examples and their dis« 
cussion in the class involve the following points : 

1. Correct reading. 

2. Examination preparatory to solution. 

3. Analysis and solution. 

4. Retracing steps 

5. Readiness in solving and explaining problems. 
Proper Results of Arithmetical Study. 



Results. - 



1. Mental discipline 



2. Practical busi- 
ness preparation. 



1. Correct perception. 

3. Repetition. 
I 3. Practice, 
i 4. Attention. 



1. 



\t. 



Accuracy. 

Expertness. 

Rapidity. 



3. Preparation for 
advanced study. 

Cautious to be Observed in Teaching 
Arithmetic. 

1. Present single ideas, single facts and single dif- 
ficulties. 

2. Call up each point in the lesson frequently. 

3. Teach simple processes. 

4. Keep the mind in an active state. 

5. See that pupils get a clear perception of princi* 
pies. 

6. Fix and hold the attention. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 207 

Mental Arithmetic. 

There should be no difference between the analysis 
of a problem in mental and in written arithmetic. The 
only difference between the two books is that the 
mental arithmetic contains problems in which the 
computation may be performed mentally, without re- 
course to written symbols ; also, the answers are not 
expressed. It is a tact that those pupils who have 
been trained carefully in mental arithmetic, take up 
the principles of higher mathematics more readily. 
The language used should be suflScient to render the 
solution of the example clearly intelligible to a 
listener, yet so brief as not to retard, unnecessarily, 
the process of mental calculation. The mental 
arithmetic should both precede and accompany the 
written arithmetic, step by step. In fact it would be 
much the better way to select a text-book that con- 
tained exercises*in both the mental and the written 
arithmetic. In mental arithmetic the language 
should be clear, and the words enunciated distinctly. 
No hesitancy should be permitted — pupils should 
pass through the solution rapidly. Pupils should be 
required to construct original problems, and random 
exercises should be given by the teacher in addition, 
subtraction, multiplication and division, to teach 
rapidity and accuracy in computation . 

The teacher should give problems of a practical 
nature to the class. 

Written Arithmetic. 

There is a great deal of perfectly barren mathe- 
mrtical knowledge in this country, particularly 



20.S ARITHMETIC. 



among those who have studied, not for knowledge, 
but for a certificate or a diploma. 

Not uutrequently do we meet with teachers who 
can demonstrate problems in Algebra and Geometry, 
who at the same time cannot make the least applica- 
tion of them. Again, we have met teachers who 
have graduated at the higher institutions of learn- 
ing, who have passed over the rules of arithmetic — 
finished the study — who would fail to solve a prob- 
lem like the following : 

How many feet in a board 13 ft. in length, and 12 
inches wide? 

They seem to be unaware that the rules of arith- 
metic were ever intended for any practical use. 

Such KiiOAvledge of Doubtful Utility. 

Knowledge, so confined and abstract, is of doubt- 
ful utility, even as a mental discipline. Both theory 
and practice should be united, or else wc preceive 
nothing of the beauties of mathematics. " Detached 
propositions and abstract mathematical principles 
give us no better idea of true and living science than 
detached words and abstract grammar would give us 
of poetry and rhetoric." Small acquirements in 
mathematics serve only to make us timid, cautious 
and distrustful of our own powers — but a step or 
two further gives us life, confidence and power. 

Should We Study Mathmatics for the 
Discipline ol the Mind ? 

The mere study of the mathematics will give but 
little discipline. The object, and the only object, 



FOR DISCIPLINE, OR FOR USE? 209 

should be to understand the subject studied, and if 
that understanding is attained, the highest mental 
discipline that the subject can yield will surely be 
attained. 

Those who study for an object so indirect and 
indefinite can never be decidedly successful. And 
those who teach with no other view than giving 
discipline to the minds of their pupils, never more 
than half teach. 

Let a person undertake the study of any science 
with no other object than the discipline of the mind, 
the science will come to him with the utmost diffi- 
culty. But let him commence the study with the 
determination to understand it, and the science will 
come to him with ease, and with it will come a 
discipline of mind, the most pure and lasting that 

man can attain. 1 

Objects Sought. 

The 'objects sought in arithmetical study should 

Idc two-fold, — to give practical skill, including clear 

insight into processes, facility in computation, and 

readiness in dealing with practical problems; and 

to make it an exercise in exact thinking. The 

former is considered the primary object, because 

demanded by the requirements of the pupil, who is 

at school to be fitted for business ; but the latter as 

securing a higher discipline of the mind, and as 

giving a clearer insight into the nature of the work, 

is of almost equal value. In pursuit of the former 

object, the teacher will succeed the best who tries to 

make the whole course of instruction and practice 

disciplinary. 



210 ABITHMETIG. 

Logical and Mechanical Steps. 

In the application of aritlimetic there are two dis- 
tinct operations, the logical one and tbe mechanical 
one. 

In too many schools greater attention is given to 
the mechanical ; to some extent this is quite neces- 
sar}'', and pupils should be made very familiar with 
elementary processes. But after they become expert 
in computation, greater attention should be given to 
calculation, — the thinking The undisciplined direct 
their attention more to the doing than the thinking, 
when it should be the reverse ; and nearly all the 
eflforts of the good teacher are directed to make his 
pupils reason correctly. If a person fails in an arith- 
metical problem, the failure is always in the logic, for 
false logic directs to false reasoning, and true logic 
points out true operations. 

The study of mathematics is a beautiful one, and 
if taught properly it accustoms the mind to habits of 
Investigation ; if the knowledge is digested and 
assimilated, it tends to produce an exact mind. 

Pupils should be able to explain the processes, but 
they should not be required to commit to memory 
the rules or principles. 

Questions as to Intellectual Arithmetic. 

Is it absolutely established by fact and theory that 
no harm results from requiring pupils to repeat ver- 
batim the examples in intellectual arithmetic, — said 
examples having been first enunciated by the teacher, 
the pupils having no books ? 



8H0 ULD FB0BLEM8 BE LEARNED ? 211 

It is suggested from the following considerations, 
whether harm does not result : 

First — Does not the requirement cultivate spa& 
modic or momentary effort to retain the words, and 
thus lead practically to the habit of forgetting them, 
thus developing a most pernicious habit of forget- 
ting other facts that are important to remember ? 

Secand — Does not the requirement so tax the recol- 
lecting powers of the pupil that his reasoning powers 
must necessarily be less active, and hence less devel- 
oped? 

Third — Is not the great object sought for in the 
study of mathematics, to develop and strengthen the 
reasoning powers ? 

Fourth — Is not that one best disciplined mentally 
who is able to attend to and follow his own mental 
powers or operations in his process of reasoning? 

Fifth — Does the requirement to memorize tend to 
strengthen or develop the habit of analytical reason- 
ing? 

Sixth — Is it not a positive injury to require pupils 
to commit to memory simple arithmetical problems 
that are of no value after the answer is obtained? 

Seventh — Cannot a verbal memory be far better 

cultivated by requiring pupils to commit facts, words 

it may be, that are absolutely necessary to a correct 

scholarship? 

Fractions. 

The term unity in mathematical science is applied 
to any number or quantity regarded as a whole ; the 
term unit in arithmetic, to any number that is<^used 
as the base of a collection 



212 ABITHMETIG. 



Every number, either integral or fractional, has 
the unit 1 for a primary base. 

A quantity regarded as a whole, called a unit, is 
the primal^ base of every fraction. 

One of the equal parts of a unit called the frac- 
tional unit, is the secondary base of every fractional 
number. 

The value of a fraction is the number of times it 
contains the unit 1, 

The quantity or unit that is divided into equal 
parts, is the unit of the fraction. 

One of the equal parts is called a fractional 

UNIT. 

In I of a pound, 1 pound is the unit of the frac- 
tion, and i of a pound the fractional unit. 

A Fractional unit or a collection of fractional units 
is a fraction. (Or it may be considered one or more 
of the equal parts of a unit, these parts correponding 
to fractional units.) 

Two integers are required to express a fraction ; 
one above a short horizontal line to denote the num 
ber of fractional units, called the numerator ; it 
numbers, or expresses, how many are taken. The 
other, below the line, expresses how many frac- 
tional units it is divided into, and is called the de- 
nominator ; it denominates or names and expresses 
how many fractional units are equal to a unit. 

The numerator and denominator taken together 
are called terms of the fraction. 

Fractions are of three kinds, common, decimal, 
and duodecimal. One or more of the equal parts 



FBAGTIONS. 313 



of a quantity, expressed by two numbers, one 
written above the other with a line between them, is 

a COMMON FRACTION— f,i and t. 

4 '12 5 

Its denominator is other than ten, or some power 
©f ten. 

A fractional number, whose value is less than a 
unit, is a propek fraction, as |,S. 

Kemarks. — A proper fraction is so termed because 
it expresses a value less than 1. An improper frac- 
tion is not properly a fraction of a unit, the value 
expressed being equal to or grater than 1. 

A single fraction, either proper or improper, is a 

SIMPLE FRACTION, | S 

A fraction of a fraction, or several fractions joined 
by of, is termed a Compound Fraction, as 2-3 of 6-8 
of 3-13. 

A fraction in the numerator, or denominator, or 

both, is termed a Complex Fraction, as -| 4 

■5 9 

Dividing unity by any number is termed a Kecip- 
rocal; thus the reciprocal of 4 is i. 

An integral number added to a fractional number 
is termed a Mixed Number, as 3 -f 1, 7 + 1. 

Remark. — The sign of addition is usually omitted. 

General Principles. 

1. Multiplying the numerator increases the value 
of the fraction. 

2. Multiplying the denominator decreases the value 
of the fraction. 

3. Multiplying both numerator and denominator 



214 ARITHMETIC. 



by the same number does not alter the value of the 
fraction. 

4. Dividing the numerator decreases the value of 
the fraction. 

5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of 
the fraction. 

6. Dividing both numerator and denominator by 
the same number does not alter the value of the frac- 
tion. 

Demonstrations of the Principles* 

1. Because it increases the number of fractional 
units while the value of the fractional unit remains 
the same. 

2. Because it diminishes the value of the fractional 
unit, while the number remains the same; it dimin- 
ishes the value of the fractional unit because the unit 
of the fraction is divided into a greater number of 
fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many 
times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 

3. Because it increases the number of fractional 
units as many times as it decreases the value of the 
fractional unit; that is in the same ratio. 

4. Because it diminishes the number of fractional 
units, while the valu^ of the fractional unit remains 
the same. 

5. Because it increases the value of the fractional 
unit, while the www? 5fr remains the same; it increases 
the valu£ of the fractional unit because the unit of 
the fraction is divided into a less number of fractional 
units, each fractional unit being as many times 
greater in value as there are units in the divisor. 



FEACTI0N3. 215 

6. Because it diminishes the number of fractional 

units as many times as it increases the value of the 

fractional unit. 

Principles. 

1. If the numerator be multiplied by any number, 
the number of fractional units will be incremed as 
many times as there are units in the multiplier. 

3. If the numerator be divided by any number, 
the number of fractional units will be cUminished as 
many times as there are units in the divisor. 

3. If the denominator be multiplied by any num- 
ber, the fractional units will be diminished as many 
times as there are units in the multiplier. 

4 If the denominator be divided by any number, 
the 'calue of the fractional units will be increased as 
many times as there are units in the divisor. 



316 AEITHMETIC. 



Analysis of a Fraction, 

Naming the quantity or unit divided, the value of 
one of its fractional units, the number of fractional 
units, the denominator, numeratoi and the terms of 
the fraction, is to analyze a fraction. 

Thus : Analyze the fraction — 
Analysis. 

-g is a fraction because it expresses 4 of the equal 
parts of a unit. 1 is the unit of the fraction, or the 
unit that is divided to form the fraction. | is the 
fractional unit, or one of the equal parts of the unit 
divided. 5 is the' denominator, it names the parts; 
it shows that the unit is divided into 5 equal parts; 
it tells the size or value of eai^h part. 4 is the nume- 
rator; it numbers the parts taken to form the frac- 
tion; it is written above the line. 4 and 5 are the 
terms of the fraction, and its value is 4 f 5. 
To Reduce Fractions to their Lowest Terms. 
Problem and Operation. 

Reduce ^ to its lowest terms. 

Operation. 
16-:-4— ^^ 
20-:-* 5* 

Analysis 
Dividing - by |- =r -^ ; as the numerator and de- 
nominator are prime to each other, the fraction is 
reduced to its lowest terms. This depends upon the 
following principle : Dividing both terms of the f rac 
tion by the same number does not alter the value of 
the fraction, because the number of fractional units 



BEBUCTION OF FB ACTIONS. 217 

is decreased as many times as the value of the frac- 
tional unit is increased. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Reduce an Improper Fraction to an Integer 
or a Mixed Number. 

Problem and Operation. 
Keduce -^ ^^ ^^ i«itegral number. 
Operation: -^_:_5— 25, or 5) — =^=25. 

Analysis. 

In 1 there are 5 fifths; in 12^ fifths, as many ones 
as 5 is contained in 125, or 25. This depends upon the 
following principle: Dividing both terms of the 
fraction by the same number does not alter the value 
of the fraction; the same reason as when we reduce 
fractions to their lowest terms. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Reduce an Integer or Mixed Number to an 
Improper Fraction. 

ProUem and Operation. 

Reduce 49 g to fifths. 

Operation: -g- x 49= -g-* 

245 2 _247. 

5+5 — 5 * 

Analysis. 

In 1 there are 5 fifths ; in 49 ones, 49 times 5 fifths, 
or 245 fifths: plus 2 fifths equals 247 fifths. This de- 
pends upon the following principle: Multiplying both 
terms of the fraction by the same number does not 
alter the value of the fraction, because the number 
of fractional units is increased as many times as the 
value of the fractional unit is decreased. (Deduce 
the rule.) 



218 ARITHMETIC, 



To Reduce Fractions to a Common Denomi- 
nator. 





Problem and Operation. 


Reduces, 3, 

5 6 


4, 15. 
■ 8 4 


3X24. 


_ "^2 


5XM" 


~ 120 


3X20 _ 


_ DO 


"6X20' 


~ 120 


4X15. 


_60 


8X15" 


"120 


15x23 


_375 


4x25" 


"~120 



Analysis. 

The least common multiple of the denominators is 
120 ; dividing the least common multiple by the de- 
nominator of the first fraction, we have the quotient 
24 ; multiplying both terms of the fraction by 24, we 
have 72 120ths. This depends upon the following 
ing principle : multiplying both terms of the fraction 
by the same number, does not alter the value of the 
fraction, because it increases the number of fractional 
units as many times as it decreases the value of the 
fractional unit. (The same analysis for the remain- 
ing fractions.) 

Addition of Fractions* 

ProUem and Operation. 
Add3^nd4 

4 4 



Operation :^il_-J— i^. 

4"^ 4"" 4~ 4 



8TJBTBAGTI0N OF FBACTIONS. 218 

Analysis. 
As the fractions have the same fractional unit, we 
may add the numerators ; _ plus -^=-=^1-* 

4 4 4 4 

Add 5^ and j6. 
8 r 

An/ilysis. 

As the fractions 5_ and ^ have different fractional 

8 7 

wmYs, first reduce tt em to fractions having the same 

fractional unit. ^ is equal to §5; 1 is equal to ^^ 
8 56 r 56 

now as the fractions are of the $am.e fractional unit 

value, we may add the numerators ; ?5 i i^ 83 ^27. 

56"^56~56~ 56 
(Deduce the rule.) 

Subtraction of Fractions. 

Problem and Operations. 
Subtract ^ from §_. 

5 4 

Operation :_? ^ 

5~20 

_3 15 

4 20 

——1—1 A 
20 20~20 '^^^' 

Analysis. 
The fractions ± and ^ have different fractional 

^54 

units. First reduce the fraction to the same frac- 
tional unit value. _3 equal 15; ^ is equal to ^; as the 

4 20 5 20 

fractions are of the same fractional unit value, we 
may subtract one numerator from the other giving 
us _7. (Deduce the rule.) 

20 



220 ARITHMETIC. 

Multiplication of Fractions— To 3Iultiplsr 8 
Fraction by an Inte§:er. 

Problem and Operation. 

Multiply ^ by 4. 

16 

Operation : _^ X "^ — ^ —i. 

16 1G~~2 

16-i-4 ~'T~'2 
Analysis. 
MultiplyiDg ^ by 4, by multiplying the numerator 

16 

is equal to ^ or K This depends upon the follow- 

16 2 

ing principle : Multiplying the numerator increases 
the value of the fraction, because it increases the 
number of fractional units, while the value of the 
fractional unit remains the same. 
Again, multiplying ^ by 4, by dividing the denom- 

16 

inator, is equal to ^ or i_. This depends upon the 

4 2 
following principle: Dividing the denominator in- 
creases the value of the fraction, because it increases 
the value of the fractional unit, while the number re- 
mains the same; it increases the value of the frac- 
tional unit, because the unit of the fraction is divided 
into a less number of fractional units, and each frac- 
tional unit is as many times greater in value as there 
are units in the divisor. (Deduce the rule.) 

To Multiply an Integer by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 
Multiply 24 by f . 



MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 231 
Operation (a) : ^ ^ 24=— 

o 

?f-vo— ^— 16, Ans. 

3 X45— 3 — 

Operation (b) : i of 24=8. 

3x2 = 16, Ans. 

Operation (c) : 24 X 2 = 48 

48^3 = 16, Ans. 

Analysis of Operation. 

(a) Once 24 is 24; 1 times 24 is HI ; 1 times 24 

3 3 3 

is 2 times 24 or 48 _16, Ans. 

3 3 

(b) i of 24 is 8 ; 1, 2 times 8 or 16, Ans. 

! 3 

(c) Multiplying 24 by 2=48; as the multiplier is 

three times too great in value, the product is three 
times too great in value. To give its required value 
divide by 3, which gives us 16, Ans. (Deduce a 
rule.) 

Note.— See that the pupil understands that f of 1 
is the same as ^ of 2. 

To Multiply a Fraction by a Fraction* 
Problem and Operation. 
Multiply 1 by 5 . 
7 8 

Operation (a): 3 ^ ^r^r— 1 
y x-gor— ^ 

7^8 ~56 
56 56 

Operation (b) : ^x^—^ 

7 —7 

15 15 

7 X 8=56 Ans. ' 



222 ABITEMETIC. 

Analym of Operation. 

(a) 3 multiplied by 8 or l=i; ^ multiplied by e" 

7 8 7 7 

is equal to 3^. Since £ multiplied by 2. is equal to 

56 7 8 

^ ,3^ multiplied by 5 will be equal to 5 times ^ or 15 

5G 7 8 56 56 

(b) Multiplying ^ by _5. is the same as multiplying 

7 8 

by the eighth part of 5. First multiply 3 by 5 = 

7 

1?; as the multiplier is eight times too great in value 

7 

the product will be eight times too gi-eat in value; 

hence to get its required value divide ^ by 8, by 

7 

multiplying the denominator, which gives i^. 

56 

Division of Fractions— To Divide a Fraction 
by an Integer. 

Problem and Operation* 
Divide 8 by 3. 

5 

Operation (a): ^-j- 3 2^. 

7 * ~7 
Operation (b) : 6 ^ _ 2 . 

7X3 — 21~~T 

Analysis, 

Dividing^ by 3^_^; according to the principle 
7 7 

which says: Dividing the numerator decreases the 

value of the fraction, because it diminishes the num- 
ber of fractional units, while the value of the frac- 
tional unit remains the same. 
Again, dividing^ by 3, by multiplying the denom- 

7 

inator is equal to A; multiplying the denominator 



DIVISIOjr OF FBA CTIOITS. 225 

decreases the value of the fraction, because it dimin- 
ishes the value of the fractional unit, while the num- 
ber of fractional units remains the same ; it dimin- 
ishes the value of the fractional unit, because the 
unit of the fraction is divided into a greater number 
of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many 
times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 
(Deduce the rule.) 

To Divide an Integer by a Fraction. 

ProNem of Operaiion. 
Divide 8 by £. 

o 

Operation (a): ^ ^ q_^. 
5 ^ "~5 

Operation (b): g _^ g :::= 2— 

d 

In 1 there are 5^; in 8, 8 times A=12; ^ divided by 

3_iqt 5 5 5 5 

6— lot- 

(&) Divide 8 by 3^, or the fifth part of three ; 
5 
divide 8 by 3 gives us 3f, now as the divisor is 

five times too great in value, the quotient is only one- 
fifth of its required value ; to get its required value 
multiply the quotient by five, which gives us 13^. 
(Deduce the rule,) 

To Divide a Fraction by a Fraction. 

Problem and Operation. 
Divide | by f . 



224 ARITHMETIC. 

Operation (a): ^ -^ ^~ 4 

4X28 
Operation (b):-^ 2=1 

3.x3 = i=U 

S 8 ^ 

3 9 

Operation (c):-^=j2 :. 

3~~12 
12 ' 12~8~'^ 

Analysis of Operation. 

(a) 1 is contained in f, three-fourth times; \ is 
contained in f , three times f , or -^ times ; f will be 
contained in -^-j y of T' or- times. 

(b) Dividing f by 2 gives us | ; as the divisor is 

three times too great in value, the quotient is only J 

of its required value ; multiplying the quotient fby 

3 gives us ^=li Ans. 
8 

(c) Reduce f and f to a common denominator. | 

is equal to ^; ^is equal to ^ ; 1. divided by^ ig 
13 3 12 12 13 

equal to 2. or 1^. 
8 



FINAL STIGaESTIONS. 225 

General Remarks. 

It is not expected in a manual for teachers to ex- 
plain every rule in arithmetic. A few rules have 
been carefully explained and illustrated in detail ; 
and these are suggestive only. The plan of this work 
has been to give a course of reasoning leading tc 
those conclusions from which rules are drawn, — and 
this is given in language free from technicalities, and 
easy to be understood. 

The explanations for Written Arithmetic are sc 
given as to put the pupil into the place of the origi- 
nal reasonei\ until he arrives at a conclusion from 
which he can deduce the rule for himself. 

After the pupils are familiar with the process 
and have received sufficient drill, they should be 
taught to analyze problems. The teacher should see 
that the analysis is thoroughly understood and accu- 
rately recited. They should be required to write out 
an analysis, and the pupil that presents the most sim- 
ple and concise analysis should write it on the board, 
subject to the criticism of the class. See that the lan- 
guage is used correctly ; that it tells " the truth, the 
whole truth, and nothing but the truth.'''' Now, require 
every member of the class to commit the analysis 
verbatim, as he would a demonstration in Euclid — for 
experience teaches that those pupils who are critically 
close'va. committing verbatim the demonstrations in 
Geometry make by far more accurate reasoners and 
ready mathematicians. 

There are teachers who allow a wide range in the 
forms of analysis as long as the language is good and 



226 ABITKMETIC. 



the reasoning logical. While we would insist upon 
the development of individuality and originaliti/ on 
the part of the pupils, yet, as mathematics is an ex- 
act" science, the language used in the analysis sliould 
h? exact. 

I cannot see how language may be cultivated if the 
teachers allow a wide range in the use of words ; I 
call that the best analysis which is the most simple 
and concise. 

Retracing the Steps in the Solution of a Prob- 
lem. 

It is very common for the pupil to suppose that to 
explain an example simply means to state what ope- 
rations — what processes were performed in reaching 
the results. Hence,^he will consider it an unreason- 
able question if asked why he added or subtracted 
multiplied or divided. 

Such an explanation should never be accepted. To 
explain a problem, means to assign a reason for each 
of the several steps. I have heard the following 
given as an analysis to a problem in division of frac- 
tions. Divide f by f. 

" Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in 
multiplication." The rule tells Tioio to solve the prob- 
lem ; the analysis gives the reason for each step. 

Practical Problems. 

A large number of pupils who pass through the 
entire arithmetical course in our best schools fail to 
make application of their knowledge. This is owing 
to a lack of practical application of the rules. For 



STICK TO TEE PRACTICAL. 227 

example, let them measure the school room, find out 
the area, measure the yard, fields, etc. ; in all the 
tables make a practical application at the time. 

Too much time is wasted in solving problems in 
continued addition, multiplication, division ; I have 
known a class to linger a week upon casting out the 
9'sin addition. All such subjects as these and many 
others, like circulating decimals, true remainder, for- 
eign exchange, alligation, algebraical and geometri- 
cal problems, should be omitted in our public schools. 
By those who wish to pursue advanced studies, the 
subjects quoted may be studied ; but, as a majority 
of the pupils leave school at the average age of 
twelve years, they should be drilled upon the subjects 
that they will be obliged to use through life. 

I would go so far that when a class had finished a 
portion of the arithmetic, — say to fractious, — every 
member should be able to solve any problem under 
the rules, giving a simple analysis, deducing the rule 
and reproducing the definitions. 

Problems. 

The pupils should bring to the class upon their 
slates or paper, problems already solved, with their 
analysis. 

The teacher should be sure to hear the lesson as- 
signed, otherwise the pupil may become careless in 
its preparation. After the pupils have recited what 
they have prepared, they should be put to the test in 
many ways ; the skilful teacher will not only examine 
the pupils, but will cross-examine them. The teacher 
should call upon pupils for an original problem ; 



228 ARITHMETIC. 



should give ihem practical problems and not leave a 
subject until they are able to make application of it, 
under each subject discussed. These should be ex- 
amined by the teacher, carefully corrected and re- 
turned to the pupil. These exercises should be con- 
tinued until good examples, illustrating any poin- 
that may be presented, can be given in the class with- 
out previous preparation. 

They should be made familiar with the simplest 
forms of commercial paper; able to write a negotia- 
able note; cast interest upon notes where partial pa}^- 
ments have been made; find the profit and loss upon 
articles bought and sold. No subject is fully mas- 
tered by the pupil until he is able to illustrate in this 
manner. 

Whatever text-books are used, many outside prob- 
lems should be given. Among the books of prob- 
lems published are the following: 1. The Regents' 
Questions; 18G6-1878; in book form, 25 cts.; key 25 
cts. Boxes of these problems, each on a card-board 
slip, with Key, $1.00. Davis, Bardeen & Co., Syra- 
cuse, N. Y. 2.gWentworth's Arithmetical Problems, 
75 cts. Harper & Bros., New York. 3. Robinson's 
Arithmetical Problems, $1.00. Key, $1.00. Ivison 
Blakeman, Taylor &JCo., New York. 4. Ray's Test 
Examples, 45 cts. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cin- 
cinnati. 



GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Oral lessons should precede the study of the text* 
book, as a preparation for it. The ideas involved in 
the definitions should be developed, before the pupils 
are required to commit these definitions to memory. 
The contrary practice, once so common, is very dis- 
couraging and injurious to the pupil, since it compels 
him to learn by rote a mass of verbiage which is 
perfectly unintelligible to him. 

Our text-books appeal chiefly to the memory and 
the ordinary grammar should be presented to a class 
as the study of language. Another reason why pu- 
pils so often dislike grammar is that they are hurried 
over the subject so rapidly that they become bewil- 
dered and utterly discouraged. 

Grammar deals largely with abstract subjects, and 
for this reason alone, time is an important element in 
the attainment of proficiency. A great deal of time 
is wasted upon this subject; if wisely presented, as it 
should be, it will prove one of the most delightful 
and interesting studies. 

One of the most common faults in teaching gram- 
mar is that of requiring pupils to commit to memory 
too many definitions, rules and observations. 



230 



GRAMMAR. 



It is an abstract subject and at first it should be 
taught orally, ; all the terms should be carefully 
developed, explained, and fully illustrated by copious 
examples. When these terms are fully understood, 
then, and not until then, should the pupils be required 
to commit them to memory. As fast as the terms 
are learned, the pupils should be required, in all 
cases, to embody them in sentences of their own con- 
struction. 

Grammar. 

The Sentence. 
I. develop tlie Sentence. ^ 
11. iDevelop the parts of a ( Y. 
Sentence. 



2. 



Subject. 

Predicate. 

Weclara= 
live. 



III. S^evdop tU Unds of \j^^^ 



Sentences {as to iise^ 



tive. 

3. J'mpera- 
tive. 



4. 



Sxclama^ 
ry. 



IV. Wevelop the forms of 
Sentences {as to prop^ 
csitions^ 



/. Simple. 

2. Complex. 

3. Compound. 



PRELIMINABY INSTRUCTION. 231 

V. Seacli the correct use of Capital S^et== 

ters. 

VI. 3 each the correct use of Punctuation 

Jiarlcs. 

Manner of Teaching the First Lessons in 
Grammar. 

The Sentence. — Lesson No. 1. 

Ask the pupils to think of some object Ask them 
how you may know the name of the object. They 
perceive that before their thoughts can be known to 
others they must express them. In order to commu- 
nicate your thoughts, what must you use ? They 
will discover that to express a thought, they must 
use words. Now ask eaeh pupil to express the 
thought, as " the bird sings;" " tbe tree grows;" *'the 
boy laughs;" " the clock ticks," etc. They are now 
told that a thought expressed in words is called a 
sentence. 

Require the pupils to form several sentences oral- 
ly, using the following analysis: 

c^ first thinh adout something j c/ use 
words to express my thought. She words- 
used are: ^^ 3he lird sings J ^ Shese 
words express a thought, and it is called a 
sentence. S€ thought expressed in words 
is called a sentence^ 



233 GRAMMAR. 



2ifie Subject. 

The pupils have already discovered that there must 
be an object or subject of thought in the mind. And 
■when they tell their thoughts they speak of some ob- 
ject or subject and tell something about it. They 
are led to see this in every sentence. By repeate/i 
trials they soon find that they can form no sentence 
■without speaking of something and telling something 
about it. 

From this explanation they will see that that of 
which something is said or which is spoken of, is called 
the subject; and that which tells what is said of the 
subject is called the predicate. 

Ask the pupils to express a sentence and analyze 
it. " The clock ticks." 

^^She clocTc tides/ -^ is a tJwitgTit expressed 

in words J it is a sentence j tlie word 

^' cloclc ^^ represents the olject spoTcen of j 

it is the subject. She word '^ ticTos ^^ rep= 

resents what is said of the clocTc j it is the 

predicate. 

That of which something is said, is called the sub- 
ject. 

That which is said of the subject, is called the 
predicate. 

TTie Object. 

By a similar process of development the pupils 
are led to observe the object of a sentence. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 233 

The teacher should write at the board all the sen- 
tences given. 

Kinds of Sentences. 

It would be well for the teacher to ask questions 
of the pupils and endeavor to get in reply the differ- 
ent kin.ds of sentences, as asking, telling, etc. The 
teacher should write these sentences as given by the 
pupils on the board, and let the pupils discover the 
differences. Let them see that every telling or decla- 
tive sentence, ends with a period. Every asking or 
interrogative sentence ends with the mark of interro- 
gation, every exclaiming sentence with an exdama' 
tion point, and every commanding or imperative sen- 
tence with a period. 

Review. 

Note. — To be committed to memory. 

/. S4 tJiougJit expressed in words is a 
sentence. 

2. Shai of wliicJb something is said^ is 
called the subject. 

3. Shat which tells what is said of the 
subject^ is called the predicate. 

4. Shat which receives the act^ expressed 
by the predicate, is called the object. 

5. Svery sentence should begin with a 
capital- letter. 



234 GBAMMAB. 



6. Svery sentence sliould e?id with a 
punctuation marTc'. 

The Telling^, or Declarative Sentence. 

Lesion No. 3. 

Q. Make a sentence about this cap. 

A. The cap is red. 

Note. — The teacher writes it on the board, while 
Ihe pupils spell the words. 

Q. What did you do when you made this sen- 
tence ? 

A. We told you something said about the cap. 

Q. Because this sentence tells or says something, 
what kind of a sentence may we call it ? 

A. We may call it a telling sentence. 

Q. What then is a telling sentence ? 

A. A sentence that tells or declares something. 

Q. What mark must be placed after the last word 
of every telling sentence ? 

A. A period. 

Q. What have we learned in our lesson of to-day? 

S^. S4 seyitence' tliat tells sometliing ^ is 

called a telling^ or declarative sentence. 

We must place a period after the last 

word of every telling, or declarative se7%=' 

tence. 

Note. — Require the pupils to write on their slates 
the definition of a sentence, subject, predicate, ob- 



IMPERA TIVE SENTENCES. 23S 



ject, a telling sentence and the rule for punctuation. 
Let the pupils spell the words, and examine the 
slates carefully . 

The Asking, or Interrogative Sentence. 

T. I will ask you a question, and will write it on 
the board. " Do you love study ?" What did I do ? 

Pu. "Sou asked a question. 

T. Because it asks a question, what kind of a sen- 
tence is it ? 

Fu. An asking sentence. 

T. What is an asking sentence ? 

Pa. A sentence that asks a question, is an asking 
.sentence . 

Note.— Let the pupils repeat, spell words and 
write the definition on their slates; ask them to ex- 
amine the reading hooks, and bring in asking sen- 
tences. 

Drill upon the above until every member knows 
how to use the period and interrogation mark. 

The Commanding, or Imperative Sentence. 

T. Tell me to do something. Can I use another 
word instead of tell ? 
Pu. You can use Command. 
T. Give me a command . 
Pu. Hand me a cup. 
T. What does this sentence do ? 
Pu. It makes a command. 
T. What kind of a sentence may we call it ? 
Pu. A commanding sentence. 



236 GRAMMAR. 



T. What is a commanding sentence ? 
Pu. A sentence that expresses a command is a 
commanding sentence. 

T. What mark have I placed after the last word 
of the commanding sentence? 
Pu . A period . 

T. How do I begin a commanding sentence? 
Pu. With a capital letter. 
T. How do I close it ? 
Pu. With a period. 
T. What is a sentence ? 

What is a telling sentence ? 

What is an asking sentence? 

What is a commanding sentence ? 

How do I close every asking sentence ? 

How do I close every telling sentence ? 

Write five telling, five asking, and five com- 
manding sentences. 

Write the definitions of the telling, asking and 
commanding sentence. 

The Exclaiming, or JExclamatory Sentence. 

T. If you should see a house on fire, what would 
you say ? 
Pu. O, see the fire ! A house on fire ! 
T. What would you call these expressions ? 
Pu. Exclamations. 
T. What do these sentences do ? 
Pu. They make exclamations, 
T. What kind of sentences are they ? 
Pu. Exclaiming sentences. 



EXCL AIMING SENTENCES. 237 

T. What is an exclaiming sentence ? 
Pu. A sentence that makes an exclamation, is an 
exclaimfng sentence. 

T. What mark do you find after the last word ? 

Pu. An exclamation point. 

T. You may all write an exclaiming sentence. 

Note. — Require the pupils to repeat all the defini- 
tions,— see that they understand the idea before com- 
mitting them to memory. Let them construct and 
write many sentences, and hold them rigidly to the 
correct use of capital letters and punctuation marks, 
and require neatness in every exercise. Work on 
each sentence until it is right. If necessary to suc- 
cess, be willing to work three days on one short les- 
son. " Not how much, but how well should be the 
motto." 

Review. 

Note. — To be committed to memory. 

/. S4 tJiougTht expressed in words is a 
Sentence. 

2, S€ sentence tliat tells or declares 
something is a Selling or declaring Sen= 
tence, 

3. Softer the last word of every S'elling 
or declaring Sentence we must place a 
feriod. 



238 GRAJIMAB. 



4. S^ sentence that asTcs a question is 
an S€slcing or Jnterrogating Sentence, 

5. S4fter the last word of every S4slcing 
or Jnterrogative Sentence we must place 
an interrogation marJc, 

6. S4 sentence that expresses a com- 
mand IS called a 9^cmmanding or zfm= 
perative Sentence. 

'/. <S4fter the last ivord of every Com- 
manding or z/tnperative Sentence, we must 
place a period. 

8. S€ sentence that maJces an exclama^ 
tion is an Sxclaiming or Sxclamatory 
Sentence, 

9. <S€fter the last word oj every Sxclaim^ 
ing or Sxclamatory Sentence^ we must use 

the exclamation point. 

Note. — Simple as this may seem, it requires on the 
part of the teacher a great deal of patience to teach 
it thoroughly. This is a very important subject, and 
the pupils should be able to make practical applica- 
tion of the above points. " Make haste slowly." 
Uses of Capital Letters. 

The attention of the pupils should be called to the 



SENTENCES AND PBOPOSITIONS. 239 

capital letters at the beginning of all these different 
sentences. This is very important, and one of the 
most practical rules in grammar. Require "written 
exercises to be brought into the class, subject to the 
criticism of the class and the teacher. 

Recapitulation. 

After the pupils have been made thoroughly famil- 
iar with the sentence, subject, predicate and object, 
also the kinds of sentences, capital letters and punc- 
tuation marks, they should be required to form sen- 
tences and analyze them, and write the definitions 
of all the terms that have been taught. A perfect 
understanding of the thought to be expressed is essen- 
tial to correct analysis ; hence, the first step should 
be to prepare the pupils to analyze sentences they 
themselves have constructed. When they shall be- 
come quite expert at this, they may analyze the 
thoughts of others. 

Let it be the aim of the teacher to present the sub- 
ject so pleasantly and attractively that pupils will not 
say, as is often the case, "what a dry, distasteful, 
uninteresting subject." 

Sentences Classified According to their 
Propositions. 

Lesson 1. 
T. Jennie, what have you in your hand ? 
Pu. " I have a book." (Teacher writes the answei 
on the board.) 

T. What is the subject ? 
Pu. The subject is "I." 



S40 GJiAMMAH, 



T. What is the predicate? 
Fu. " Have a book." 

S. ^Vlien tlw subject and predicate ex= 
press cb complete tlionglit it is called a 
single proposition. 

T. You may now repeat it. 

Pm, Suppose it does not express a complete 
thought ? Oh, Mary, you are thinking. 

T. It may, or it may not, express a complete 
thought, and still be a proposition ; for a proposition 
is the union of a subject and a predicate. In the 
example. •' I have a book," the thought is complete. 
In the example, "If I go,' it is incomplete; both 
are propositions. 

Fred, do you like all the boys in school ? 

Pu. I like the boj^s who study. 

T. Read the first proposition. 

Pu. "I like the boys." 

T. That is right : why is that a proposition ? 

Pu. Because it is the union of a subject and a 
predicate. 

T. What kind of a proposition is it ? 

Pu. A single proposition, because it expresses com- 
plete sense. 

T. Do the words " who study," make sense ? 

Pu. They do not, if used alone, but with the other 
proposition, they assist to complete the sense. 

T, That is right. Are the words "who study," a 
proposition ? 

Pu. They are ; because it is the union of a subject 



SENTENCES AND PROPOSITIONS. 241 

and predicate. A proposition by itself may or may 
not form a sentence. 

T. What is such a proposition as "who study," 
called ? Do you know ? 

Pu. It is called the second proposition. 

T. You might call it that, but it would not be defi- 
nite : we will call it a clause, as it performs difierent 
offices. 

T. In the sentence * ' I like the boys who study," 
which do you think is the principal proposition ? 

Pu. '*I like the boys." 

T. Why do you think that is the principal ? 

Pu. Because it is that which expresses the leading 
thought . 

T. That is right. Let all repeat that. That which 
expresses the leading thought is the leading proposi- 
tion. 

Pu. But what of the words " who study ?" 

T. Do they make complete sense ? 

Pa. They do not; they seem to have something 
tt» do with the principal proposition. 

T. That is right, John. They tell the kind of boys. 
We may call them the ** study boys." It is not the 
principal proposition. What shall we call it ? In a 

regiment we have principal officers and (Fred 

answers) "subordinate." That is right, Fred. As 
the words " who study " modify the principal prop- 
osition we will call it a subordinate clause. Now, 
mv brave fellows, what is a subordinate clause? 

Pu. The clause that modifies the principal propo* 
sition, is a subordinate clause. 



242 GRAMMAR. 



T. You may all repeat it slowly; so you see that 
subordinate parts or elements are those that belong to 
other elements. They are called subordinate because 
they are under in order, or in importance. 

T. Now, let us find another kind of proposition. 
I see two boys in the park. Tell their names. 

Pu . Charles and Frank . 

T. What are they doing ? 

Pu. Charles runs and Frank walks. 

(Teacher writes answer at the board.) 

T. Read the first proposition ? 

Pu. " Charles runs." 

T. Read the second proposition ? 

Pu. " Frank walks." 

T. Does the last proposition belong to any word 
in the first ? 

Pu. It does not. 

T. Does the first proposition belong to any word 
in the second ? 

Pu. It does not. 

T. Does the first proposition express a complete 
thought in itself ? 

Pu. It does. 

T. Does the second proposition express a com- 
plete thought in itself ? 

Pu, It does. 

T. Since each proposition expresses a thought by 
itself, meaning that it is not dependent, what shall 
we call it ? I will tell you. We call the proposi- 
tions co-ordinate. It means that the propositions are 
of equal rank. We will now repeat. Propositions 
of equal rank or order are ca'led co-ordinate. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 243 

S'. S4 sentence composed of one propo-^ 

sition is called a simple sentence j a sen= 

tence composed of cu principal and sub= 

ordinate propositions^ is called a complex 

sentence : a sentence composed of two or 

more co-ordinate propositions is called a 

compound sentence. 

Note. — The teacher should not leave this division 
until the pupils can bring into the recitation written 
examples of all the different sentences. Also, re- 
quire the pupils to analyze the sentences. 

Bevieiir, 

/. S€ proposition is the union of a suh^^ 
ject and a predicate. 

2. <S4 proposition hy itself may or may 
not form a sentence. 

3. S€ single proposition is a sentence 
when it expresses a complete tJiouglit. 

4. £4^ proposition may form an element 
of a sentence J it is then called a clause, 

5. She principal proposition of a sen=' 
tence is that which expresses the leading 
thought. 



244 



GBAMMAB. 



6. S€ subordi7iat& proposition is one' that 
modijies the' principal. 

^. ^o=ordinate' propositions are tliose of 
equal ranlo in the same sentence. 

8. S4' simple sentence is one composed 
of hut one proposition, 

9. S€ complex sentence is one composed 
of a principal and 07ie or more subordi' 
nate propositions. 

70. S€ compound sentence is one com^ 
posed of two or more co-ordinate proposi^ 
tions. 

Classificaiion of Sentences and their Ele- 
ments. 

'Simple, 



Sentences, 

Clauses, , 

Phrases, 

Subjects, 

Predicates, 

Objects, 

Attributes, 

Modifiers, 



Sentences, 



Clauses, 



are classified in respect ■{ Compound, 
to form and use, as 

^ Complex. 

are classified f Declarative, ^ afflrma- 
in respect to j Interrogative, ( tive 
'kind or prop- I Imperative, | or 
osition, as [Exclamative, J negative 

are classified in respect ( f^^f^^^^ 
to kmd and proposition, 1 Co-ordinate. 



GENERAL FOBMUL^. 



245 



Phrases, 

Sentences, 

Clauses, 
Phrases, 

Elements 

of 
Sentences. 



are classified in respect / tJa 5 jh -^e 



to kind. 



Prepositional, 
Infinitive, 
) Participial. 

f Substantive, 
are classified in respect J Adjective, 
to office and use. 1 Adverbial, 

L Independent. 

Princinal ) Subject, ( Verb. 
Principal, C j Copula and 

J predicate, J attribute. 
' [Object, 

) Modifiers. 



Elements [are classified F""<='P^'- ] ^"Int 
of Phrases I into j^^.^^^j^ Wo?ds, ' 

( Modifiers. 



1 



\ 



i-1 ' 4.'^ r. \ Coordinate, 
C^^J^^cti^^^i Subordinate, 
{ Conjunctive Adverbs, 
Connecting Elements ■{ Copulas, 
are classified into Phrases, 

Relative Pronouns, 
Prepositions. 

Independent Elements ( ?tff^*/.^°^' 
^ , , . ^ ■{ Substantives, 

are classed into | ^^^.^^ ^f Euphony. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



INTRODUCTION. 



That ^ve begin to teach where the philosopher 
ends, is singularly applicable to the three extra 
subjects of elementary schools — geography, grammar 
and reading. 

Few among teachers have seen that the scientific 
study of a subject implies that the mind has been 
first furnished with the ideas and facts which form 
the subject-matter of it, and which it is the province 
of science to explain and classify. 

As a branch of school instruction, Geography has 
two stages, — a preparatory, and a systematic or 
scientific one. 

Primary Geography. 

In the primary or preparatory, the object should 
be to furnish the mind with so much of the material 
as is necessary to make the systematic study interest- 
ing and profitable ; in the advanced or scientific 
study, the aim should be careful teaching to make it 
an instrument of intellectual discipline. 

Geography acquires its full value as a branch of 
education only when it loses the character of an 
accumulation of facts, undigested by the child's mind, 



FIRST STEPS IN GEOGEAPIIY, 247 

and becomes real in his memory, linked by association 
with the world of thon/^ht and action which immedi- 
ately surrounds it or that which is within it. 

Tell the child to observe the lines of the map which 
hangs perpetually before his eyes, and talk to him 
only of the names upon it, and you will soon weary 
his attention; but speak to him of the living men who 
inhabit that country, — tell him of their stature and 
aspect and dre?s, and ways of life, and ot tlieir forms 
of worship; speak of its climate — of the forms 
of vegetable and animal life with which his eye 
would be conversant if he dwelt there — of trees and 
flowers, and you excite him to a new life. 

First Step. 

I. Talk about the earth as a whole — of what it is 
composed and what may be found upon it. 

The heavens catch the child's attention early, and 
he wishes to know about the sun, moon and stars. 
/ He has a general knowledge of the earth ; he has 
learned something about land and water, varieties of 
surface, the location of places, vegetable products, 
natural and cultivated, and the animal and mineral 
kingdoms. 

These things may be said to comprise the elements 
ot geographical study; and they may be made the 
subjects of direct study by the children. 

With these, the study of geography may begin ; 
not by learning words from a hook, but by actual 
observation, gujded by the pral instruction of th^ 
teacher. 



248 GEOGRAPHT. 



In teaching the first step in geography, explain to 
the children that the sun, moon and stars are large 
balls, and that they resemble the ball we live upon. 
Tell them that we call this bcxU the earth, and that 
*' the earth hangeth upon nothing," floating free in 
space like a bird in the air. To excite the pupils' 
curiosity, and give them a correct idea of the form of 
the earth, blow a few soap bubbles before them, and 
let them float in the air, Tell ihem that a body of 
the shape of a ball is called a globe or a sphere. 
Talk about the outside of diSerent objects and tell 
them that the outside of an object is called the sur- 
face. The outside of the earth is called the surface 
of the earth. 

The immense magnitude of the great globe he can- 
not as yet imagine ; at first be content to see that he 
understands its form and motion. 

Let the children see that if they should walk on the 
earth a certain number of hours or days in any direc- 
tion, they would come to the water. 

They will now see that the surface of the earth is 
composed of land and water. 

Tell them the fact that one-fourth of the earth's 
surface is land and that three-fourths is water. 

Now explain to the child the figures on the globe ; 
which is meant for land, which for water, and show 
him his own country. 

Draw an oblong figure upon the board and divide 
it into four parts, let three parts represent the water 
and one part the land. Draw a circle upon the board 
and let three parts represent the water and one part 



LESSONS ON THE GLOBE. 219 

the land. Use colored chalk. The illustrations will 
tend to impress the correct ideas on the mind. 
" Happy illustrations excite curiosity," 

Now, on looking at the globe, the first thing that 
must strike every one is, how much more water there 
is on it than dry land. Tell the children that we may 
ride for days and weeks on the water and not see any 
land. 

Let them see how very unequally the land. is 
arranged, instead of being spread evenly all over 
the surface; it is collected together, some portions 
very large and some very small. Let them see the 
roughness of the fields and roads and hills, not to 
speak of the high mountains or depths of the sea. 

In the foregoing account we have spoken of the 
earth as a sphere, or a globe, or an exactly round 
ball. But this though practically true for our pur- 
pose, is not strictly correct, for the earth is not exactly 
round. You can see it is not. On so big a ball as 
the earth however, these things do not count for 
much. The earth, although so large, so many miles 
around it, may be traveled over — we can go around 
it. A train of cars at the rate of 40 miles per hour, 
would pass around the earth in about 26 days. 

Now, ask the children what may be found upon 
the surface of the earth ? They will give names to 
the difierent kinds of matter, such as trees, shrubs, 
plants, rocks, and, horses, cows, etc. 

Let them see that the difierent things named may 
be classified. Tell them to name the different things 
found within the earth that do not grow : as iron, 



250 GEOGliAPHT. 



lead, gold, silver, rocks, pebbles, sand, etc. Tell 
tbein tbat tbese objects belong to tbe Mineral Class. 

Tell tbem to name the things only that grow out of 
the earth : as trees, plants, shrubs ; the different 
kinds of trees, plants and shrubs. Tell them tbat 
these objects belong to the Vegetable Class. 

Tell them to name the animals that are found on 
the land, in the water, and in the air. Tell them 
that these objects belong to the Animal Class. 

Ask the children which class thej'- belong to, and 

tell them wherein thej' differ. That plants grow, 

breathe, take food and die. That brutes do the same ; 

but that men differ in that they also possess a mind 

and a soul. 

For Kecitation. 

1. The earth is a large ball or shpere. 

2. Its surface is composed of land and water ; one- 
fourth is land and three-fourths are water. 

3. Minerals, vegetation and animals are found upon 

the earth. 

. Second Step. 

II. Give instruction upon tJie relative position oj db' 
jeds and places. 

Draw their observation to relation, position or 
place, beginning with the situation of the things 
which they see around them, and the distances of 
these from each other. Question the children as to 
the position of objects before them, and lead them 
to describe how they are placed with regard to eacb 
other, as above, below, on this side or that side, etc 
The teacher should represent the positions of these 



POINTS OF COMFASS. 251 



objects on the board and request the pupils to copy 

the representations on their slates. These exercises 

will prepare them to appreciate the value of a map. 

Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make clear 

the limits and form of its boundaries. 

Study the position of objects and places in regard 

to absolute and relative distances. Make the school 

room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 

all the things learned, and have the pupils reproduce 

the representations. 

Third Step. 

III. Give the children a knowledge of the cardinal 
points of the compass in their use in geographical des- 

c/nption. 

East and West. 

When children have been accustomed to determine 
the relative position of objects, they must be let to 
consider places in the same point of view ; and to this 
end they should be made acquainted with the use of 
the several points of the compass. 

Let the class face the North. Ask them to point 
where the sun rises and where it sets. Tell them that 
the place in the heavens where it rises is called the 
JE^as^that in which it sets, the 'West Excite them 
to observe, both at home and at school, that the sun 
rises in the East and sets in the West. 

Close the lesson by a stimultaneous repetition, 

*' That direction in which the 8un rises is called the 
East ; and that in which it sets, the West." 
North and Sonth. 

Commence this with a repetition of the preceding 



252 GEOaRAPHY. 



one. Call on the children to place themselves with 
their right hand to the East and their left to the 
West, and then tell them that the point directly 
before them is the North, and that directly behind 
them the South. 

Ask them to repeat together, " If we stand with our 
right hand to the East and our left hand to the West, 
the point directly before us is the North, and that 
directly behind us, the South." Ask the pupils to face 
the East, the South, the West and the North. Let 
the children place a stick or draw a line with the 
chalk on the floor, in the direction of North, South, 
East and West. 

In such exercises the object is to occupy only so 
much time upon each new idea as may suffice to^.'C 
it on the mind. A figure should be drawn on the 
board representing the compass, or better still a small 
compass should be exhibited. The teacher should 
see to it that the children are firm on one step of the 
ladder of knowledge, before they proceed to another, 
and not weary and disgust them, by keeping them 
too long o*n one subject. 

Semi- Cardinal Points. 

When we wish to represent the situation of differ- 
ent places on paper or on a slate, we call the top 
North, the bottom South, the right hand East and 
the left hand West. The teacher writes the four 
cardinal points on the board. But are things or 
places alwaj^s exactly at the North, the South, the 
East o; the West ? Where may they be ? They 



POINTS OF COMPASS. 253 

Diay be between any two of these points. A point 

half way between North and East is Northeast. 

What do you think half way between North and West 

is called ? Develop the oth«r semi-cardinal points in 

the same way. Lrill upon the above facts. Draw a 

square at the board and let the children mark and 
tell the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. 

Draw a circle on the board and mark ofi" the prin- 
cipal and intermediate points. 

Let the teacher draw the outline of the room on 
the floor in chalk, and mark the position of objects 
within it, and when a map of the room is substituted, 
place it first in a horizontal position. 

Let the pupils place the diflerent articles in the 
room along the northern, the eastern, southern and 
western boundaries. 

Require them to draw the room according to the 
same scale, and mark the relative positions of the 
objects. 

Let them measure the length of the school room by 
a foot measure ; see that it is correctly done. 

Let the children see that we cannot represent the 
dimensions of the room on the board by using the 
scale of feet, but that we must use the scale of inches. 
Now let one foot of the room be represented by one 
inch on the slate or board. If the room is twelve 
feet long, how many inches shall we make our line 
on the slate? Twelve. Proceed in the same manner 
until the children obtain a correct idea ol a scale. 
For example, the inch, the foot, the yard, the rod 
and the mile. 



254 GEOGRAPHY. 



Teach the location of streets and the direction of 
them ; the public building, etc. Let the children see 
that in geography we need not say top and bottom, 
right and left, but we 'call them north, south, east 
and west. When you are in front of a globe or a 
map, the top is north, the bottom is south, the right 
hand is east, and the left hand is west. 

Fourth Step. 

IV. Give instruction and drill upon geographical 
definitions. 

Land Divisions. 

Draw an irregular figure on the board represent- 
ing one of the divisions of the earth, — say, South 
America. In drawing the coast, (that is, a rib or 
side — the edge of the land near the sea,) make the 
projections and indentations promin^nt^ so that we 
may be able to use the figure to give the children a 
correct idea of the shape of land and water divisions. 
The larger figure will represent one ot the mainlands 
of the world, as distinguished from islands, which, 
though large, are still evidently surrounded by the 
sea ; and it is called a Continent. 

A prominent projection of land from the coast, — 
not quite an island, not quite surrounded by the 
water, — is called a Peninsula. It projects from the 
mainland or body, and generally is quite narrow at 
the point of projection and gradually widens. 
Where there is a Peninsula there ought to be an 
Isthmus, which is a neck of land connecting it with 
the mainland. 



DIVISIONS OF WATER. 255 

Proceed in tlie same manner to develop all the 
land divisions. Continue the drill until all the 
children understand what is meant by the terms 
used — such as Continent^ Peninsula^ etc. 

Let the children draw many figures until they are 
perfectly familiar with all the land divisions. 

Water Divisions. 
Let the children see that all the water of the earth 
belongs to one great ocean, sometimes called the sea. 
Tell them that the ocean is the largest body of water. 
Talk to them about the extent of the ocean, what is 
found within its waters, and the great thoroughfares 

of commerce. 

Gulf and Bay. 

Draw a figure with a prominent indentation in the 
coast, and let the children see that a recess in the 
coast is called a Gulf and Bay. The gulf is usually 
the narrower and deeper, and the bay broader and 
more open of the two. In fact, the words are used 
without exactness of distinction. 

A narrow passage of water between two continents, 
not very deep, is called a Strait. A Sound is also a 
narrow passage of water between two continents or 
islands, but much deeper. All of the water divisions 
may be represented on the board in such a manner 
as to convey very correct impressions. Develop all 
the terms in the same manner. 

The teacher should not be content until these terms 
are thoroughly understood and mastered. The object 
of them all is to teach the pupils about the earth, 
and they are of no use if they do not do that. Get the 



256 GEOGBAPRY. 



pupils into the nabit of looking at the country itself; 

finding out all the ideas they can and what they all 

mean. 

Begin at Home. 

The most important spot for us all in this and 
many other respects is our homes. What sort of a 
country is it ? What about its hills and mountains ; 
its valleys and plains ; its resources and thorough- 
fares? Can you answer all these questions? It is 
that sort of inquiry, begun at your own home and 
gradually inclining to other countries and scenes till 
you know all about them, which is the useful part of 
that great science of man and nature of which Geog- 
raphy is an important part. There is no subject 
w^hich unites you to a higher, happier life, than 
Geography. Keep your eyes open, and you, will see 
something to study every day of your life. 

How to Teach Geograpy. 

Instruction in Geography embraces two depart- 
ments, viz : Primary and Advanced. 

Primary Geography should be strictly objective; 
Advanced must of necessity be subjective. 

Objective instruction operates on objects present 
to the senses, perceiving in them certain principles 
and relations, and gradually realizing that the princi- 
ples herein perceived are common to all objects of 
the same kind. 

This involves conception, generalization, and 
finally abstraction, — this is the law of development. 

I. Teach direction, and apply it to the school 
liouse and immediate surroundings. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 257 

II. Teach dimensions, especially in the smaller 
denominations, with frequent tests. Direction and 
dimensions are essential to conception of space and 
distances in space. 

III. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make 
clear the form of its boundaries. 

Study the position of things within the space in 
regard to distances and directions. Make the school 
room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 
all the things learned ; have the pupils reproduce the 
maps. 

IV. Take the school-house grounds as the second 
division of space and apply the preceding principles ; 
thence in succession the district, the township, the 
county, the State, the nation, the world. 

V. Study the vegetation, the animals, and the min- 
erals of the smaller spaces. Give names and uses, 
distinguishing the wild animals and vegetation from 
those which are cultivated. 

YI. Study the occupations and the trades of the 
people. 

VII. Study the manufactures and the forces em- 
ployed in driving the machinery. 

VIII. Study the commerce and the transportation. 
IX.'Study the social, religious and political organ- 
izations. 

The above may be all taught objectively ; for ex- 
amples of them come within the perception of every 
ordinary child, if he be but taught to use it. 

This local geography should be exhausted before 
undertaking the general study of the world ; it gives 
the basis of understanding the subjective treatment. 



258 GEOaKAPHY. 



Advanced Geography. 

I. Study the form, size and position of the earth. 

II. Study its surface in respect to land and watei 
and their relations. 

III. In studying particular divisions pursue a nat- 
ural order, viz ; outlines, surface, climate, vegetation, 
minerals, animals, nations. 

General Caution* 

The geography of the common school is not true 
geography ; it is a miserable hotch-potch of insignifi- 
cant fragments, and is utterly unworthy the great 
name it bears and the time it occupies. Gigantic 
facts, magnificent generalizations, splendid specula- 
tions, involving, as they do, the mightiest problems 
in several of the other sciences, are certainly not fit- 
ting food for little children's minds. Their imagina- 
tions are confounded at its first propositions. The 
huge round world, swinging unsupported in limited 
space, and wheeling with an inconceivable velocity 
along its trackless orbit, parcelled into vast expanses 
of continent and still vaster oceans, and peopled with 
a billion of human beings, what a conception is this to 
offer to a little child ! Picture it, explain, illustrate 
it as we will, it still remains a great mystery of which 
nothing is learned but the vaguest ideas. Nor are 
its later problems less diflScult than these first and 
fundamental notions. The alternations of day and 
night, with their varying lengths in difi'erent latitudes 
and different seasons ; the variety and succession of 
the season and their relation to climate ; the preces- 
sion of the equinoxes ; the movements of the tides ' 



MAP-DBAWING. 25C 

the flow of the oceanic currents ; the sweep of the 
winds ; the great laws of climate ; the geographical 
distribution of plants and animals, and the migra- 
tions and varying civilizations of the human race ; — 
these surely are not questions for mere tyros in learn- 
ing and novices in study to solve. 

Map-Drawing. 

Suggestions. 

1. Begin with the school-room and draw a plan of 
it on the board. 

2. Draw around it the plan of the yard. 

3. Let the children measure the dimensions of the 
room and the yard and draw the plan to various 
scales. 

4. Draw a map of the neighborhood, village, city, 
etc. 

5. Let the pupils indicate the various streets, 
public buildings, etc. 

7. Give thorough drill. 



GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Introductory. 

Advanced Geography enables us to give some cul- 
ture to the understanding. Facts have to be classified, 
generalizations to be made, laws to be discovered and 
the connection of causes and effects to be established. 
It is now clearly understood that the most profitable 
way of teaching the geography of a country is to take 
up its physical features Jirst, and then the facts which 



260 GEOGBAFHT OF XOBTH AMEETCA. 

depend upon them. To be made acquainted with the 
physical features ot a country is as necessary to a 
geographer as the knowledge of the bones and great 
blood vessels of the human frame is to the anatomist. 
One in order to understand the real geograph}- of a 
country, — its organic structure, if I may so call it, the 
form of its skeleton — that is, of its hills ; The magni- 
tude and course of its veins and arteries, — that is, of 
its streams and rivers ; — should ccnceiveit as a 2c7ioIe 
made up of connected parts ; and then the position of 
man's dwellings, viewed in reference to these parts, 
becomes at once easily remembered, lively, and 
intelligible besides. 

The use of the blackboard in teaching geography 
is now general. Its relation to the use of maps is 
better understood than it was. It turnishes the means 
of exhibiting any portion of a map on a larger scale, 
and bringing out prominently any feature that may 
be required — maps often confusing because so 
crowded. 

By means of colored chalk, the separate classes of 
facts may be kept distinct and their relation more 
clearly show^n. All facts presented to the eye are 
impressed on the mind. "The faithful sight en- 
graves the knowledge with a beam of light." 

In the treatment of this subject, Physical and Poli- 
tical Geography will be associated as inseparable — as 
one subject — with this fact overlooked geograph}^ be- 
comes a mass of meaningless details, without either 
cause or correlation, while its study degenerates into 
men rote work. 



GENERAL FEATURES. W« 

Study of North America. 

I. Position. 

1. North America is in the Western Hemisphere. 

2. It is the Northern Grand Division. 

3. It is found in the New World. 

II. Extent. 

1. It extends from the Arctic Ocean almost to the 
Equator. 

2. It is about 4,800 miles in length. 

3. It is about 3,000 miles in width. 

4. Area in square miles 8,929,660. 

5. Comparative size — It is double the size of 
Europe, but only one-half as large as Asia. 

///. Fmm. 
1. In form this Grand Division is triangular. 

IV. Outline. 

1. Its outline is irregular. 

2. The projections and indentations are prominent. 

3. The Northern Coast is the most irregular . 

4. The Atlantic seaboard is much more indented 
by bays and gulfs than the Pacific coast. 

5. These inbreakings furnish good harbors, and 
this is a commercial advantage. 

Y. Coast. 
Northern Coast. 

1. The principal projections from the Northern 
coast are the Peninsulas of Labrador, Melville and 
Booihia. The principal capes are Cape Charles, Cape 
Chidley, Cape Bathurst, aud Cape Barrow. 



262 GEO GBAFHY OF If OH TH AMERICA. 

2. The principal indentations are Hudson's Bay, 
James Bay, Ungava Bay, and Coronatiou Gulf. 

3. The adjoining islands are Southampton, Fox 
Land, Prince William's Land, Prince of Wales, 
Prince Albert, Melville, and Grinnell's Land. 

4. The commercial advantages are limited. 

Eastern Coast. 

1. The principal projections from the Eastern 
coast are Peninsula of Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, Cape 
May, Cape Charles, Cape Henry, Cape Hatteras, 
Cape Lookout, Cape Canaveral, and Peninsula of 
Yucatan. 

2. The principal identations are the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, Bay of Funda, Massachusetts Bay, Cape 
Cod Bay, Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, 
and Chesapeake Bay. 

3. The adjoining islands are New Foundland, Cape 
Breton, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Long Island, 
Bermuda, Bahama, and the West Indies. 

4. The commercial advantages are unlimited, 
since the Atlantic seaboard lies nearest the great 
markets of the Old World. 

Southern and Western Coast. 

1. The principal projection from the Southern 
coast is the Peninsula of Florida; from Western 
coast, Corrientes, Cape St. Lucas, Peninsula of Cali- 
fornia, Cape Mendocino, Cape Flattery, and the 
Peninsula of Alaska. 

2. The principal indentations are the Gulf of 
Mexico, Bay of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, Gul/ 



aENERAL FEATURES. 263 

of California, San Francisco Bay, Gulf of Georgia, 
Bristol's Bay, and Norton Sound. 

3. The adjoining islands on the Western coast are 
Vancouver's, Queen Charlotte's, Sitka, Kodia and 
Alulian. 

VL Straits. 

1. The straits on the Northern coast are Davies* 
Strait, Hudson's Strait, Frobisher's Strait and Bark's 
Strait ; on the Eastern coast, Strait of Belleisle and 
Florida Strait ; on the Western coast, Strait of Juan 
de Fuca. 

2. The commercial advantages are limited ; few 
harbors are found on the Southern and Western coast. 

VII. Belief, 

1. The vertical configuration of the continent or 
island — that is, its elevation as a whole — varied by 
plains, table lands, mountains and valley, is called 
its relief. 

The relief may be said to consist of elevation and 
depressions. 

The fornjs of relief are exceedingly varied ; the 
elevations when they reach or exceed 1000 feet are 
called plateaus or table lands ; when less than 1000 
feet, are called plains or low lands ; the term hill is 
applied to ridges less than 2000 feet in elevation. 

A knowledge of the reliefs of continents is of the 
utmost importance. 

A difference in altitude of no more than 330 feet, 
is sufficient to produce a temperature of one degree, 
being equivalent to a difference of seventy miles in 
latitude. 



264 GEO GBAFRY OF NOB TR AMJEEICA . 

Again, the relief of a continent controls its drainage, 
shaping the river basins and directing the course of 
the rivers, and influences to a certain extent the 
direction and character of the winds and the distri- 
bution of rivers. 

VIII. Common Features of Continental Belief. 

1. Structure of Continents. — According to the 
tJieory of modern geographers there are six contin- 
ents. There are certain grand features common to 
all — a peculiar combination of mountain systems, 
plateaus and plains. Each continent has upon one 
side of the centre a great mass of elevated lands, 
usually extending throughout its entire length, and 
constituting the priTnai'y feature of its structure. On 
the opposite side is found a similar, though smaller 
and less elevated mass extending through a part of 
the continent, and constituting the secondary feature 
of the continental structure. Between the "primary 
and secondary elevations is a central depression, 
which forms the tliird feature common to all contin- 
ents. 

These elevated masses are sometimes called the 
main axis and secondary axis of a continent. There 
is a marked unity of structure — one common plan 
pervading all the continents. In each of the two 
Americas, the main axis extends through the entire 
length of the continent. The main axis lies near the 
Western shore ; the secondary axis near the Eastern. 
Vast low plains occupy the interior ; but the plains 
on the seaward slope of the axis are only of limited 
extent. 



MOTINTAIN SYSTEMS. 2G5 

IX. Surface of North America. 

The surface of North America is naturally divided 
into five parts : The Western or Pacific Highland ; 
the Low Central Plain ; The Eastern or Atlantic 
Highland ; and the Pacific and Atlantic Slopes. 

a. Westebn or Pacific Highland. — The Pacific 
Highland, or Great Plateau Belt, which forms the 
primary feature of North America, occupying 
almost all of the Western half of North America, 
extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Isthmus of 
Panama. 

This region consists of a vast plateau, surmounted 
by two lofty mountain systems, the Rocky Mountains 
on the East and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade 
ranges on the West, with numerous shorter paralled 
ranges lying between them. The breadth of the 
plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra 
Nevadas is not less than 600 miles, and the more 
Northern portions have a breadth of about 300 miles ; 
the plateau is quite low in the North, but rises grad- 
ually as it extends to the South. The elevation in- 
creases, though a succession of swells and depres- 
sion, from 800 feet near the Arctic shore to 8000 feet 
in the table-land of Mexico, whence it decreases 
rapidly Southward. 

The Rocky Mountains form the main watershed in 
the United States, and five of the largest rivers, — 
the Missiouri, the Rio Grande ; the Colorado, the 
Columbia and the Yukon. It includes three basins — 
the basin of the Columbia and the Colorado rivers, 
and between them the Great Basin of Utah. 



266 GEO GRAPHY OF NOR TE AMERICA. 

The Pacific Plateau extends from the Rocky Chain 
on the east to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Moun- 
tains on the West. Their Eastern slope is short and 
abrupt, its base resting upon the plateau, which is 
from 2,000 to 4000 feet in elevation. The Western 
slope is long and gentle, descending into extensive 
valleys which are but little above the level of the sea. 

Low mountains called the Coast Range lie between 
these border chains and the Pacific Ocean. The 
Coast Ranges North of Cape Flattery is broken into 
a series of islands. 

The Rocky Mountains rise to a height of 8000 feet 
above the surrounding country ; they are from 12000 
to 15000 feet above the sea level. 

h. The Atlantic Highlands form the secondary 
feature of the continent, and they extend from the 
Northern coast of Labrador nearly to the Gulf of 
Mexico ; approaching, but not meeting the Western 
highlands on the South. This region consists of the 
plateau of Labrador, with the Laurentide Moun- 
tains on the North of the St. Lawrence, and the 
Appalachian System and the adjacant low plateaus 
on the South. 

2. The Labrador Plateau is about 2,000 feet in 
elevation, and the Laurentide Mountains are rarely 
above 4,000 feet. 

3. The Appalachian region is composed of a suc- 
cession of low, parallel mountain ranges, separated 
by long, trough-like valleys ; and a plateau about 
2,000 feet high, which descends gently from the 
crest of the westernmost range towards the interior 
of the continent. 



QBE A T PLAINS. 26 : 

The average height of the mountain chain is about 
3,000 feet. The highest peaks are from 6,000 to 
6,700 feet in elevation. It has very little table land. 

c. The Low Centraii Plain lies between the two 
highlands of the continent, which, with but slight 
variations of level, stretch from the Arctic shores 
to the Gulf of Mexico. A slight swell near the centre, 
designated the Height of Land, separates it into two 
parts, one descending northward to the Arctic Ocean, 
the other southward to the Gulf. This swell which 
connects the Atlantic with the Pacific highlands, is 
from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
The Central Plain is formed by the long, gentle slope 
descending eastward from the base of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

2. On the South their intersection is marked by 
the position of the Mississippi River. On the North 
a broad low swell, approximately parallel with the 
Rocky Mountains, extends from Lake Superior to 
the Arctic Shores, separating the Northern plain into 
two vast basins. 

3. The Western basin, which is narrow and elon- 
gated, is connected with the Eastern by a break in 
the dividing swell, through which the Nelson River 
flows to Hudson Bay. The Eastern basin, which is 
more expanded, is partly below the level of the sea 
and covered by the waters of Hudson Bay. 

4. A series of remarkable depressions, occupied by 
the great lakes of the Mackenzie and Saskatchewan 
river systems, — Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, 
and Winnepeg — marks the intersection of the north- 
ern swell with the slope from the Rocky Mountains. 



H^S GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 

5. On the Height of Land, near its junction with 
the northern swell, are three vast depressions, diverg- 
ing from a common centre, with a depth reaching 
considerably below the level of the sea. These are 
filled \y the waters of the great lakes — Superior, 
Michigan and Huron. 

Similar, though less extensive, basins in the St. 
Lawrence valley are occuj^ied by lakes Erie and 
Ontario. 

6. The Central Plain consists of two immense 
slopes, — the Northern being the Arctic Plain, the 
Southern the Mississippi Valley. 

7. The Mississippi Valley occupies one-half of the 
entire area of the United States. The surfiice is un- 
dulating; parts are hilly; on the whole, the surface is 
that of a plain, with slopes toward the centre from 
off the two highland regions and a general slope from 
the height of laud Southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 

8. The Plains. — The name of the Plains is given 
to a section of the country extending a considerable 
distance to the Eastward of the Rocky Mountains. 
It may be called a sloping plateau ; there is no well 
defined limit at which the name of plateau must be 
exchanged for that of a plain. 

d. The Pacific Slope extends from the crest of the 
Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Ranges westward to 
the Pacific Ocean. Its average width is about 150 
miles. Between these ranges and some lower eleva- 
tions along the coast is enclosed the great California 
Valley. 

e. The Atlantic Plains is the slope from the Alle- 



GENERAL FEATURES. 269 



ghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It varies in 
width according as the mountains approach or recede 
from the sea coast. Upon the Northern coast of the 
United States it is about 50 miles in width ; at the 
mouth of the Hudson River, it varies to a mere strip 
of coast ; it broadens southward to a width of 300 
miles. 

The teacher should take up the rivers, lakes, 
climate, etc., as the next subject in order for study, 
based upon the following; order, viz : 

X Rivers. 

1. Classification by river-systems. 

2. Description of particular rivers. 

a. Length and size. 

h. Availability for navagation. 

c. Availability for water-power. 

3. (Rivers of the particular locality.) 

XL Lakes. 
1. Description. 

3. Uses, 

a. As yielding fish. 

h. For navigation. 

XIL. Climate 
1. As determined by latitude. 
2 As modified by particular causes, — altitude, 
proximity to the sea or the great lakes, winds, etc. 
3. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 

XIIL. Natural Advantages. 
1. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 



270 GEOQBAPHT OF NORTH AMERICA. 

2. On the surface of the earth. 

a. Nature of the soil with reference to agricul- 

ture. 

b. Forrests, — nature and uses of the woods. 

c. Facilities for transportation afforded by the 

sea, rivers, lakes, etc. 

3. Within the earth. 

a. Useful minerals and metals — as coal, build- 
ing material, iron, copper, lead, etc. 
6. Precious metals, — as gold and silver. 

4. In the waters. 

a. Sea-fisheries. 

h. Lake and river fisheries. 

'KIV. Industries^ or Occupations, 

1. Agriculture. 

a. Relative Xnportance among the industriea 

of the State. 
h. The crops raised. 

c. Statistics of crops. 

d. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. 

2. Manufacturing. 

a. Relative importance. 

6. Articles produced, 

c. Statistics of manufactures. 

4. Mining. 

a. Metals or minerals found. 
h. Mines, to what extent worked. 

5. Lumbering. 

a. Locality of the forests. 
&. Description of the method. 



BLACKBOARD TABXTLATION. 271. 

5. The Fisheries. 
tty Locality of the fisheries. 
t. Kinds of fish taken. 

6. Commerce. 
a. What is exported. 
5. What is imported. 
c. Means of transportation. 

XY. Internal Im'provements. 

1. Eailroads. 
a. Local railroads. 
5. Trunk-lines. 

2. Canals. 

3. navigation on lakes and rivers. 

Blackboard Tabnlation of the Relief. 

North America. 

'1. The Plain. 

2. Rocky Mountains. 

3. Pacific Plateau. 
I. Western Highlands. { 4. Cascade Range. 

5. Sierra Nevada. 

6. Coast Range. 

7. Pacific Slope. 

(1. Atlantic Slope. 

I 2. Appalachian System. 

n. Eastern Highlands.^ I ^|f-J°P- 

5. Plateau of Labrador. 

6. Laurentide Mountains. 

m. Central Plain. \ J' Northern Slope, Arctic Plain. 
( 2. Southern Slope, Miss. Slope. 



273 GEO GRAF ET OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 

ly. Height of Land. 

After tbis subject has been taught objectively and 
fully illustrated, the above tabulation should appear 
on the board and the pupils be required to recite 
topically. 

The pupils should name every important item con- 
nected with the relief, and the teacher should require 
the pupils to write a composition, using the tabula- 
tion as an outline. 

It is expected that after the subject is taught 
objectively all the divisions will be tabulated in a 
similar manner. 



NEW YORK STATE. 

Special Study. 

I. Position of the State. 

1. It is situated between the Atlantic Ocean and 
two of the Great Lakes, 

Its land boundaries, separating it from Pennsj'^l- 
vania, New Jersej^ New England and Canada are 
straight lines, and constitute nearly one-third of the 
entire boundary of the State. Their total length is 
541 miles. The remaining boundaries, 879 miles in 
length, are all navigable waters, except 17 miles on 
Poultney river. They include 352 miles on Lakes 
Erie, Ontario and Champlain ; 281 miles on Rivers 
Niagara, St. Lawrence, Poultney, Hudson, Kill van 
Kull and Delaware, and 246 miles on Long Island 
Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. 

Boundaries of the State : — It is bounded on the 



POSITION AND OUTLINE. 273 

North by the Dominion of Canada, Vermont and 
Connecticut ; on the East by Vermont, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the South 
by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania ; on the West by New Jersey, Pennsylvania 
and the Dominion of Canada. 

II. Outline. 

The form of the State is very irregular. 

III. Extent. 

1. Its area is 47,000 square miles. 

2. Its population is 4,698,958. 

3. Its extreme length is 320 miles, exclusive of 
Long Island, the length of which is 120 miles. 

Its extreme breadth, from the Canada line to the 
South point of Staten Island, is 312 miles. 

IV. Coast. 

1. It has but a little sea-coast, and this is found in 
the South-eastern portion of the State, containing one 
of the best barbors in the world. 

2. It has an extensive lake-coast on its Western, 
Northern and Eastern portions, containing many har- 
bors. 

3. There are no prominent projections of penin- 
sulas or capes from this State, but indentations are 
frequent on the lake-coasts, forming excellent har- 
bors. 

Harbors. 

New Nork Bay, lying South of Manhattan Island, 
between Long Island and Staten Island, affords an 



274 GEO GBAPET OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 

excellent harbor ; on Lake Erie are two harbors al 
Buffalo and Dunkirk ; on Niagara River are two har- 
bors at Tonawanda and Lewiston ; on Lake Ontario 
are fine harbors at Genesee, Sodus, Oswego, Sackett's 
Harbor and Cape Vincent ; on the St. Lawrence is 
one harbor at Ogdensburg ; on Lake Champlain are 
four harbors at Rouse's Point, Plattsburg, Port Henry 
and Whitehall ; Sagg IJ arbor is on the Eastern part 
of Long Island. 

Adjoining Islands* 

The islands adjoining the North-eastern portion of 
the State are Manhattan, Staten, Long, Governor's, 
Bedlow's, Ellis — the three last belong to the United 
States. Black well's, Randall's, "Ward's, Hart's, 
Fisher's, Plum, Gardner's, and Shelter Islands are 
found in the East River and Long Island Sound. 
New York city, situated - on Mahattan Island, 
contains two United States Forts ; and Bedlow's and 
Ellis Islands are used for store-houses of amunition. 
Forts are located upon either side ot New York 
Bay on Long Island and Staten Island. 

The islands in Lake Champlain are Valcour, Crab, 
Schuyler, North Hero and South Hero. 

The principal islands in the Northern St. Lawrence 
are Carlton, Grenadier, Fox, Mills and Grindstone. 

The Thousand Islands are in the Southern part, 
near the source of the St. Lawrence. 

The principal islands in the Niagara are the Grand, 
Squaw, Strawberry, Rattlesnake, Tonawanda, Beavei 
and Goat. 



COAST AWD S UEFA OK 275 

V. Surface. 

The greater part of the State lies in the Eastern 
Highland, and has a very diversified surface. 

The North-eastern and Eastern parts are moun- 
tainous; the Southern part undulating. It has a 
wonderfully varied surface. Its high and wooded 
mountain ranges, its extensive valleys and broad 
plateaus, its many beautiful lakes, water courses, 
cascades and rapids, and its vast extent of highly 
fertile soil, render it one of the most important por- 
tions of the American continent. 

Long Island is mostly a low and level sandy plain, 

broken in the Northern part by low hills of sand and 

gravel. 

Adirondack System* 

1. The North-eastern portion is covered by the 
Adirondack System, which are the highest and most 
rugged m the State, and consist of. a number of 
nearly parallel ranges, having many interlocking 
spurs. They extend from the North-east to the 
South-west, and are composed of the St. Lawrence, 
Chateaugay, Ausable acd Clinton ranges. The 
highest peaks are found in the Ausable range ; 
Mount Marcy 5402 feet in height ; Mclntyre 5201 ; 
Gothic 5000 ; Dix 4816 ; and Seward 4284 feet. 

Highlands* 

1. Lying in the same general direction as the 
Appalachain System, are the rugged and forest-clad 
Highlands, consisting of several nearly parallel 
mountain chains, which extend across the Hudson 



276 GEOGBAPffT OF NEW YOBK STA TE. 

into the Eastern portion of the Stiite. The High- 
iands are a continuation of the Blue Ridge, which, 
alter crossing Pennsylvania and New York, ends in 
the Green Mountains of Vermont and New Hamp- 
shire. The Catsbergs and Hilderbergs are continua- 
tions of the westward ranges of the Alleghanies. 
The highest peaks of the Highlands are Butter Hill, 
Crow's Nest and Bear Mountain ; these are in Orange 
County. Bull Hill, Anthony's Nose and Breakneck 
are in Putnam County; and Be.acon Hill in Dutchess 

County. 

Shawangunk Mountains. 

North and West of the Highlands are the Shawan- 
gunk Mountains, a continuation of the Blue or 
Kittatinny. This long and broken crest, 2000 feet 
high, is separated from the Highlands, by a broad 
undulating valley, which is an extension of that 
known in Pennsylvania as the Cumberland Valley. 
Catskill Mountains. 

North of the Shawaugunk Mountains are the Cats- 
kill, the highest in this portion of the State. They 
are broken into many peaks, the highest having an 
altitude of about 2800 feet. 

The mountains of this region all belong to the 
great Appalachain System ; the chain is made up of 
a succession of ridges, whose prevailing course is 
parallel with each other and with the general coast 
line of the continent. 

The general character of the Appalachain range 
in New York is a gradual change from mountains 
to hills, which finally sink away in the low lands of 
the great St, Lawrence basin. 



MOUNT AlirS. 277 



To the West and North of the Shawangunk the 
Catskills are piled up, one upon another, in sublime 
majesty — the whole view being unsurpassed in the 
grandeur and sublimity of its character. Ficm ILe 
Summit of Overlook Mountain more than 250 peaks 
of the Catskill range may be seen, including Round 
Top, Black Head, Table Mountain, Peak Amoose, or 
Slide Mountain, Enbaumberg, High Point and Mt. 
Tobias. 

Three distinct ranges or collections of parallel 
ridges pass through New York State, from South- 
west to North-east. 

The first or most easterly of these is the con- 
tinuation of the great Blue Ridge of Yirginia, Mary- 
land, and Pennsylvania, the main portions of which, 
passing through the North-western corner of New 
Jersey, forms the Shawangunk Mountain, which, 
extending between Sullivan and Orange counties, 
strikes the Hudson in the southern part of Ulster 
county. South-east of this long ridge a succession 
of smaller ridges run parallel with it, some of which 
cross Orange and Rockland into Putnam and 
Dutchess counties, east of the river. The gap 
through which the Hudson flows is across these 
smaller ridges, whose highest summits rise to heights 
varying from one thousand to seventeen hundred 
feet above tide-water. The Taghanic and Green 
Mountains of Western Massachusetts and Vermont 
are probably prolongations of the Blue Ridge. This 
range culminates in the Highlands upon the Hudson. 
The highest peaks are 1,000 to 1,7000 feet above tide. 



278 GEO aBAPHT OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 

The mountains are rocky and precipitous, and unfit 
for cultivation, 

Tlie second series of these ridges enters the State 
from Pennsylvania, and extending through Sullivan, 
Ulster and Green counties, terminates in the beauti- 
ful Catskills, a short distance west of the Hudson. 
Its highest peaks are from 3,000 to 3,800 feet 
above tide. Helderbergs are spurs from this series. 
Their summits are generally covered with old red 
sandstone. 

The third series passing through Broome, Dela- 
ware, Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery, and Herki- 
mer counties, reappears beyond the Mohawk, and 
there constitutes the Adirondack Mountains, among 
whose summits the Hudson finds its source. The 
culmination of the whole Adirondack System is Mt. 

Marcy. 

Palisades. 

In the South eastern part of the State, are found 
the picturesque Palisades whose left perpendicular 
walls of gray rock begin in New Jersey, opposite 
Manhattan Island, and border the Hudson for about 
20 miles. 

A Height of Land extends from the central part 
westward, bordering on Lake Ontario. It is sup- 
posed that the waters of this lake once extended to 

this ridge. 

Valleys. 

The State abounds in beautiful and fertile valleys. 
The long and low valleys of the Hudson and the 
Mohawk meet almost at right angles near the mid- 



VALLEYS. ' 279 

die of the Eastern boundary, and divide the State 
into three distinct sections, each having marked 
peculiarities. 

In the Southern part of the State are found the 
valleys of Delaware, Susquehanna and Chemung ; 
in the Western, the beautiful valley of Genesee. 
The greater part of the State West of the Catskill 
and Shawangunk Mountains is a broad plateau, 
highest in the southwest. 

The southern part of the region is drained by the 
numerous branches of the Susquehanna, Alleghany 
and Delaware ; the Northern portion by streams 
flowing into Lake Ontario. All of these have cut 
long and deep valleys and gorges across the plateau. 
South of the line of water-shed between the two 
sets of streams the plateau is for the most part 
covered with hills, the highest in Cattaraugus and 
Chautauqua counties, having an altitude of 2,500 feet 
above the sea. 

North of the water-shed a beautiful rolling coun- 
try descends in a series of broad terraces to a low 
and level belt along the shores of Lake Ontario. 

The most remarkable features of the terrace region 
are the transverse valleys extending from South to 
North. 

In the Northern part of the State are found the 
valleys of Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence. 

Direction of Slopes. 

In the Northeast the slope of the land is towards 

Lake Champlain. In the East towards the Hudson 

m^ fee Mohawk valleys In the South toward^ 



280 GEOGBAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

Pennsylvannia. In the West towards Lake Erie 
and the River Niagara. In the North towards Lake 
Ontario and the River St. Lawrence. 

VL Elvers. 

I. Classification of river-systems. 

St. Lawrence System. 

The Western slope of the Adirondacks gives rise 
to various small rivers called the St. Lawrence /System 
The rivers constitutiDg this system are the Oswegat- 
chie, Grass, Racket, St Regis. Salmon and Black; 
the last flowing into lake Ontario, the others into 
the river St. Lawrence. 

Lake System. 

A secondary water-shed is formed by a Height of 
Land between and to the North of the head-stream 
of the Susquehanna, which rises in Otsego Lake, 
and the head-stream of the Alleghany, which turns 
northward into New York. This height of Land 
forms the " divide *' between the streams flowing 
northward into Lake Onatrio and westward into 
Lake Erie, southward into Pennsylvania, and east- 
ward into the Hudson river. 

The rivers constitutiDg the Lake System are : The 

Tonawanda, Bufialo and Cattaraugus, which flow 

into Lake Erie and Niagara River ; and the Genesee 

and Oswego which flow into Lake Ontario. The 

latter is the outlet of a series of lakes in Central 

New York. 

Southern System. 

The rivers constituting the Southern System ai-e 



RIVEB SYSTEMS. 281 

the Delaware, which receives the waters of the 
Popacton and the Neversink upon the East; the 
Susquehanna which receives the waters of the 
Unadilla creek and the Chenango on the Korth, and 
on the West the Chemung, which receives the waters 
of the Conhocton on the North and the Tioga on 
the South ; and the Alleghany which discharges its 
waters into the Ohio. 

Hudson River System. 

The rivers constitating this system are the Schroon, 
Battenkill, Hoosac and Crcton, Eastern tributariea 
to the Hudson ; and the Walkill, Rondout, Sacon- 
daga and Mohawk, Western tributaries to the latter 
river ; West Canada Creek is the Northern tributary 
of the Mohawk and Schoharie the Southern. 

The Ausable and the Saranac rivers discharge their 
waters into Lake Champlain. 

//. Bescription of particular rivers. 
Tlue Hudson River. 

The Hudson has its most remote sources among 
the highest peaks of the Adirondack Mountains, 
4,000 feet above tide-water. Its numerous upper 
branches unite and thence follow a southerly course, 
broken by numerous falls and rapids, to Troy, where 
it meets tide-water. The remaining 150 miles are 
navigable by large steamers and coasting crafts. 
Ships can ascend to Hudson. 

The length ' of the Hudson is 800 miles. Among 
the streams which drain the great Atlantic slope, 
none is more attractive than the noble river at whose 



282 GEOaEAPET OF NEW YOBK STATE. 

mouth stands the Empire City of the Western 

World. 

Susqnehanna River. 

Its length is 400 miles; it rises in Otsego Lake, 
flows in a winding course South into Chesapeake 
Bay. In size it is one of the principal rivers of the 
S^tate, but it is too shallow and too rapid in its fall to 
be of much advantage for navigation. 

Genesee River. 

The Genesee River is 110 miles in length ; it rises 
in the Northern part of Pennsylvania and flows 
North into Lake Ontario. It has washed out deep 
gorges and contains five water-falls ; on the upper 
Genesee are three cataracts of 60, 90, 110 feet, called 
Portage Falls ; on the lower two cataracts. The 
Genesee Falls at Rochester are 96 feet high, besides 
the rapids above and a broken fall of 84 feet but 
a few miles below. 

The Genesee River is navigable for 7 miles, from 

its mouth to the Lower Falls. It passes through 

one of the most fertile valleys in Western New 

York. 

Niagara River. 

The Niagara River forms the Western physical 
boundary of New York State, and is 40 miles in 
length. The cataract of Niagara is the grandest and 
most celebrated water-fall in the world. Niagara 
River, which receives the drainage of four of the 
great lakes, and is from two to three miles wide 
immediately below Grand Island, here becomes very 
much naiTower. 



RIVERS. 283 

It rushes with great rapidity over its rocky bed, 
falling 52 feet in about a mile, and presents a vast 
expanse of wildly tossing waters, its surface every- 
where lashed into foam. 

At the lower edge of these rapids the river is divid- 
ed by Goat Island, and leaps in two broad sheets 
over the precipice, falling with a thundering sound 
into the chasm below. 

The smaller, or American Fall, is 164 feet high ; 
the Canadian or horseshoe Fall, is about 150 feet. 

The Grorge, seven miles in length, is as wonderful 
as the cataract itself. Its width varies from 1200 to 
600 feet, and its lofty vertical walls distinctly show 
that the falls were once at the Northern end of the 
chasm, and that they have in the course of ages 
slowly cut this deep and remarkable channel through 
the solid rocks. 

This river is spanned by two suspension bridges; a 
foot bridge at the Falls and a carriage and railroad 
bridge two miles below. It is navigable from its 
mouth to Lewiston. 

Mohawk River. 

The Mohawk River takes its rise on the Western 
slope of the Adirondack Mountains, and flows south 
and then eastward into the Hudson. 

It has cut a deep gorge through or e of the spurs 
of the Adirondack System of Mountains at Little 
Falls. At Cohoes the river flows over a rocky 
declivity 78 feet in height, of which 40 feet is i 
perpendicular fall. The main fall is 900 feet wide, 
and the banks above are wild and precipitous. 



284 aEOGRAPHY OF NEW YOEK ST A TE. 

In the Northern tributary of the Mohawk — the 
\Yest Canada Creek — is found Trenton Falls, con- 
taining five falls, and descending 300 feet in three- 
quarters of a mile. 

These Falls are unsurpassed in beauty, and are 
visited by thousands. 

Delaware River. 

The Delaware River rises in the Catskill Moun- 
tains, flows south into Delaware Bay. It forms a 
part of the Western boundary of New York, and is 
navigable to Trenton, 75 miles. It is a highway of 
transportation for coal and iron. 

Alleghany River. 

Rises partly in Western New York and partly in 
the Alleghanies, flows Sonth-west into the Ohio ; it 
is the northern and main constituent of the Ohio; 
navigable to Olean, N. Y., 260 miles. 

Seneca River. 

The Seneca river takes its rise in Seneca Lake, 
flowing through the outlet of Cayuga Lake, receiving 
the waters of the Clyde River, and discharging its 
waters into the Oswego River. 

The inlet of Lake Oneida is the Wood River, and 
its outlet is the Oneida River, which unites with the 
Seneca and forms the Oswego River. 

Harlem River. 

Ilarlem River separates Manhatten Island from the 
mainland, and merges into Spuyten Duyvil Creek, 
which connects Harlem River with the Hudson 



RIVERS. 285 

thereby forming MaEhattan Island. Through this 
estuary, tide-water flows, the currents meeting at or 
near Kingsbridge, about a mile from the Hudson. 

East Kiver, 

The East River extends from New York Bay to 
Long Island Sound ; it is about 26 miles in length 
and forms a part of the Eastern boundary of New 
York city. 

Bronx River. 

This river, in connection with East, forms the 
Eastern boundary of New York city. 

Croton River. 

The Croton Riyer is about 40 miles in length and 

tlischarges its waters into the Hudson. This river 

supplies New York city with water. The water is 

carried in an aqueduct built of solid masonry, and 

follows the course of the Hudson. The entire cost 

of the Croton works at their completion was $14,- 

000,000. 

Water Falls and Gorges. 

Among the most noted Water Falls are Lyon's 
Falls, in Black River, Lewis County, 63 feet ; High 
Falls, in Warren County, 60 feet ; Glens Falls, in 
Warren County, 50 feet; Ausable Falls, in Essex 
County, 100 feet ; Buttermilk Falls, in Tonawanda 
Creek, Genesee County, 90 feet; Taghanic Falls, in 
Tompkins County, 230 feet ; Enfield Falls in the same 
county, a series of Cascades, 230 feet ; Fall Creek, 
also in Tompkins, having five Cascades and a fall of 
600 feet within a mile ; Chittenango Falls in Madi- 



286 aEOGRAPET OF NEW YORK STATE. 

son County, 136 feet ; High Falls, in Ulster County, 
50 feet ; and the Kaaterskill Falls in Greene County, 
with two Cataracts, one of 180 and the other of 89 
feet. 

In Schuyler County are found Watkins Glen and 
Havana Glen. 

Id Schoharie County is found a noted Cave, called 

Howe's Cave, that has been explored for five miles. 

It is situated upon the Albany and Susquehanna 

Kailroad. 

Mineral Springs. 

New York is noted for its numerous mmeral 
Springs. Among medicinal springs, the following 
are places of resort : Saratoga and Ballston Springs, 
in Saratoga County ; New Lebanon and Stockport, in 
Columbia County ; Masseua, in St Lawrence County ; 
Richfield in Otsego County ; Avon, in Livingston 
County ; Clifton in Ontario County ; Sharon, in 
Schoharie County; Chittenango, in Madison County ; 
and Alabama, in Genesee County. 

YII. Lakes. 

Boundary Lakes 

The lakes are a distinguished feature of this State. 
Numbers of these lie wholly within its borders ; but 
the Great Lakes, properly so-called, lie on its borders. 

Lake Erie. 

Lake Erie, on the West, is 268 miles in length and 
from 30 to 54 miles in width. Average depth 120 
feet, and 564 feet above the mouth of the Hudson. 



LAKES. 287 

Lake Ontario. 

Lake Ontario is next in size, and is elliptical in 
form ; it is 190 miles in length and 56 miles in width. 
Its entire Southern shore, east of Niagara River, is 
within New York State. Average depth 500 feet and 
231 feet above the mouth of the Hudson. 

Lake Charaplain* 

Lake Champlain is a long, narrow sheet of water 
famed for its beauty. Its extreme length is 134 
miles, with a breadth of from one-half to ten miles. 
Its waters are clear, deep and cold. Its depth in 
some places is 300 feet. 

Fort Ticonderoga. 

This is a favorite place of resort for summer tour- 
ists, and is full of historic interest. The old fort, on 
the high bluff near the steamboat wharf, is in a dilap- 
idated condition, but enough remains of its ruined 
bastions to make it a most interesting subject for the 
study of those who have any reverence for the mem- 
ory of our early days as a nation. 

Inland Lakes.— Lake George. 

"Horicon " (the Silvery Waters) is an Indian name 
often applied to this unrivaled gem of American 
lakes. The Indians themselves called it Can-i-a-deri- 
oit — the tail of the lake. The French discovered it 
in 1609, and named it Saint Sacrement. 

The entire number of Interior Lakes in the State 
is estimated at 650. 

The whole Adirondack region is intersected and 
diversified by a net work of lakes and streams, which 



288 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

render it picturesque and beautiful in an almost 
unequalled degree. 

In this region of the State there are several 
hundred lakes ; the principal ones are the Schroon, 
Placid, Raquette, Long, Cranberry, Upper Saranac, 
Lower Saranac, Tupper's, Chateaugay, Chazy, Peseco 
and Pleasant. 

The most remarkable and important feature is a 
series of beautiful lakes lying in the transverse 
valleys of Central New York. 

The following are the principal lakes of this 
region : Drained by the Genesee — Hemlock, Hone- 
oye, Canadice and Conesus ; the first of these supplies 
the city of Rochester with water ; by the Oswego — 
Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, 
Skaneateles, Cross, Onondaga, Otisco, Cazenovia and 
Oneida ; by the Susquehanna — Otsego and Schuy- 
ler ; by the Alleghany — Chautauqua. 

VTIl Climate. 

New York State has a wider range of climate than 
any other state in the Union. In the interior there 
are great extremes of temperature. 

The Ocean modifies the climate of the South- 
eastern part ; the Great Lakes modify the climate of 
the North-western and Western part ; the most ex- 
treme climate is found in the North-eastern part. 

IX. On the Natural Advantages. 
1. On the surface of the earth. 

{a) The soil in the valleys is very productive. The 
Mohawk Yalley and its islands raise vast quantities 



NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 289 



of broom-corn, supplying more than half the United 
States with brooms. The Genesee Valley raises vast 
quantities of corn and potatoes. 

The Northern Counties, the high regions along the 
Hudson, and the Southern border are the chief stock 
and dairy districts; grain is the principal product of 
the rich terraces and lowlands of the west. Hops 
are chiefly produced in Madison, Oneida, Otsego and 
Schoharie; tobacco in the ralley of the Chemung 
and in Onondaga and Wayne Counties; grapes and 
other fruits in the terrace region, in the Hudson Val- 
ley, and on Long Island. Near the City of New 
York market gardening and the supply of milk are 
very important interests. 

{h) Forests. — Forests still cover a great portion of 
the State, and furnish a large amount of lumber. In 
the Southern tier of counties, and in the Adirondack 
region, pine, hemlock, and other evergreens are the 
principal trees. Other parts of the State have a great 
variety of maple, hickory, chestnut, ash, beech, pine, 
spruce, oak, elm, ash and locust. 

(c) Facilities. — The facilities for transportation 
are abundant; the rivers, lakes, etc., affording means 
of easy transportation. 

2. Within the Earth — Minerals. 

{a) The most useful Minerals and Metals are found 
in the Eastern half of the State from Staten Island to 
Canada. The chief mines are in Orange, Dutchess, 
Essex, Clinton, Oneida and Wayne Connties. Lime- 
stone is abundant in the greater part of the State ; 



290 GEOGEAPEY OF NEW YOBK STATE. 



granite, slate, flag, bluestone and cement — the three 
last mentioned are found in Ulster County; and brick 
clay on the banks of the Hudson. 

Lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, manganese, gypsum 
and water lime are found in considerable quantities. 

Traces of gold are found in the rock formation on 
the East bank of the Hudson, near Poughkeepsie. 

The salt springs of Onondaga County supply the 
most extensive salt works in the United States. The 
product in 1874 was 6,600,600 bushels. 

(&) In the Waters. — Cod and mackerel fisheries 
are extensively carried on off the coast of Long 
Island, and the rivers have been stocked with fish. 



THE METROPOLIS AND LEADING CITIES 
OF THE STATE. 

New York. 

The population of New York city is 1,104,523. It 
is the first city of the Western Hemisphere in popu- 
lation, w^ealth and commerce, and destined to be the 
metropolis of the civilized world. It is situated on 
Manhattan and several smaller islands and the ad- 
iacant main lands. Manhattan Island is 13^ miles 
in length, and from 1 to 2 miles in breadth. 

The extreme length of New York city proper is 16 
miles, its greatest width 4^ miles, and its area 41^ 
square miles, 22 being on Manhattan Island. It now 
includes a portion of Westchester county, inclusive 
to Bronx River. 



JSTEW YORK CITY, 291 

New York is called the "Empire State" and the 
city the " Metropolitan City." It is not only noted for 
its extensive commerce and wealth, but for the num- 
ber of its magnificient hotels, banks, churches and 
private dwellings, and for its Central Park. 

Within a radius of 20 miles from the City the total 
population is nearly 2,000,000. Of this number, 560,- 
000 are within the neighboring counties of New 
York, and 395,000 in those of New Jersey. 1,809,000 
were within the radius of ten miles. These limits in- 
clude many large manufacturing cities and towns, 
great commercial depots and thriving villages, whose 
chief interests are so closely connected with those of 
New York that these communities practically con- 
stitute an essential part of the metropolis. Twenty. 
seven steam ferries, twenty converging railways, and 
numerous steamboat lines, enable vast multitudes of 
those whose homes are in these outlying suburbs to 
attend to their daily business in the great city. 

(5) Advantages of Location. 
New York is pre-eminently a commercial city. In 
this respect it ranks among the most important in the 
world. Its harbor is of unsurpassed excellence. 
Lower Bay presents eighty-eight, and New York Bay 
about twenty-seven square miles of anchorage. The 
island has nearly twenty-five miles of water-front, and 
the suburbs at least as much more. Great numbers 
of steamboats ply on Long Island Sound and the Hud- 
son ; on the latter a single " tug "may frequently be 
seen with a "tow" of from fifteen to fifty barges, 
canal boats, and other craft. Many lines of ocean 



293 GEOQKAPEY OF NEW YORK ST A TE. 

Bteamers run to the chief ports of the West Indies, 
South America, Great Britain, France, Germany, the 
Netherlands, Belgium, and the Atlantic coast of the 
United States. 

The port of New York has more than one-half of 
the foreign trade of the Union, and collects about 
two-thirds of all the duties on imports. The internal 
and coasting trade is also enormous. 

Brooklyn 9 

in Kings County, is the third city in the United 
States in population. It is situated on East River 
and New York Bay, at the "Western extremity of 
Long Island, opposite New York, and covers about 
twenty-one square miles. Its immense commercial 
interests and advantages are among its chief features. 
The city has a water-front of about eight and a half 
miles, entirely occupied with piers, slips, ferries, 
ware-houses and storage yards, and is one of the 
greatest grain depots in the world. The Atlantic 
Docks are a long four-sided basin in the South- 
western part of the city. The basin is twenty-five 
feet deep, and covers forty acres. It has about two 
miles of wharfage, and is surrounded, except at the 
entrance, by storage houses, substantially built of 
granite and brick, and covering twenty acres more. 
South of this are the Erie basin of sixty acres, and 
the Brooklyn basin of forty acres. The value of the 
articles stored in the various warehouses of the water 
front has in some years exceeded 1260,000,000, em- 
bracing every variety of slaple domestic and impor- 
ted produce, grain being the chief item. 



LEADING CITIES. 293 

Brooklyn is connected with New York by twelve 
steam ferries, which ply day and night. In 1872 they 
conveyed over 60,000,000 passengers and an enor- 
mous number of loaded vehicles. The two cities 
will soon be more closely connected by a gigantic 
suspension bridge, now in great part completed. Two 
massive stone piers, 268 feet high, and built on the 
opposite margins of the river, will support four 
cables of steel wire, each sixteen inches in diameter. 
These cables will sustain the roadways. The bridge 
will be 85 feet wide, its central span from pier to pier 
1,595 feet, and its total length about 6,000 feet. 

Buffalo, 

a city of Erie County, is situated on a gently sloping 
plain at the Eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of 
Niagara River, and at its junction with Buffalo 
River. It has an extensive system of beautiful pub- 
lic parks, connected by broad boulevards. A tunnel 
supplies the city with pure water from the middle of 
the bed of Niagara. 

The situation of the city, and its facilities for the 
reception and transportation of merchandise, make 
it a very important commercial centre. It is the ter- 
minus of the Erie Canal, of several of the most im- 
portant of trunk railroads, and of the navigation of 
the upper lakes. It has a water-front of two and a 
half miles on Lake Erie, and of equal length on 
Niagara River. Its harbor, which is one of the best 
on the lakes, has three divisions, and is protected by 
extensive breakwaters^ 

The city has an immense traffic, grain being the 



294 GEOGEAPBT OF NEW YORK STATE. 

leading item, Only second to this is tbe trade in 
live stock. It is also largely engaged in shipping coal 
to the Central States and Canada. Its manufactures 
are important. Iron manufactures in great variety 
constitute the chief industry. All of the iron ves- 
sels on the Great Lakes were built at Buffalo. There 
are numerous tin, copper and sheet-iron works, brass 
founderies, furniture, barrel, and boot and-shoe fac- 
tories, carriage, wagon, and car shops, flour mills, 
tanneries and breweries. 

Albany, 
a city of Albany County, is the capital of tbe State. 
It is favorably situated for commerce on the west 
bank of the Hudson, near the head of tide-water and 
of navigation. It is also the terminus of the Erie- 
Canal and of five railroads. The city is a great grain 
market, and the chief lumber market of the State 
Amons the public buildings and noted institutions 
are the State Library, the Geological and Agricul- 
tural Hall, the State Normal School, the State Hall, 
and the City Hall. The new Capitol, a vast granite 
structure yet unfinished, will be the most splendid 
public building in America excepting the Capitol at 
Washington. Population 86,013. 

Rochester, 

a city of Monroe County, is situated on Genesee 
River, seven miles from Lake Ontario, at the junction 
of the Erie with the Genesee Valley Canal and of 
the New York Central with several other railroads. 
Besides the large railway traflic, there is considerable 
export and import trade with Canada. 



LEADING CITIES. 295 

Within the city limits the river has three falls of 
96, 25 and 84 feet, and furnishes an enormous amount 
of water-power. The chief products are flour, cloth- 
ing, boots and shoes, leather, furniture, carriages and 
wagons, iron castings and machinery. Rochester is 
surrounded by a very fertile country, largely occupied 
with nurseries of fruit and ornamental trees. Some 
of these nurseries are among the largest in the world. 

Population, 81,673. 

Troy, 

a manufacturing city of Rensselaer County, on the 
East bank of the Hudson, six miles above Albany, is 
at the head of tide-water, and of steam navigation, 
and at the principal outlet of Erie and Champlain 
Canals. It is the center of five railroads. Its iron 
and iron manufacturers are among the most import- 
ant in the United States. They embrace every form 
- of iron and steel, of iron an-d steel castings, and of 
wrought, hollow, and pressed ware. Troy is also 
the chief seat of the shirt and collar manufacture, 
and has a large lumber trade. It also manufactures 
bells, mathematical instruments, and linen goods. 

Population, 48,821. 

Syracuse, 

is a manufacturing city of Onondaga County, at the 
head of Onondaga Lake and at the junction of the 
Erie and Oswego Canals, It is an important railroad 
centre, having seven diverging lines. Salt is the 
chief interest. Among the great variety of manu- 
facturing establishments are blast-furnaces, steel 
works, and rolling-mills. The product has reached 
$14,000,000 a year. Population, 54,396. 



296 GEO (^EAPHY OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 

Utica, 

a city of Oneida County, is at the South bank of the 
Mohawk, at the junction of the Erie and Chenango 
and of the New York Central and several other rail- 
roads. It is noted for its extensive cheese trade. Its 
various manufactures have amounted to $8,000,000 a 
year. Population, 33,070. 

Oswego, 
a city of Oswego County, is beautifully situated on 
Lake Ontario, at the mouth of Oswego River and on 
the Oswego branch of Erie Canal. It has a delight- 
ful summer climate, well-shaded trees and many 
handsome buildings, and is the seat of a State Nor- 
mal and Training School. Four railways give com- 
munication with other parts of the State, with Penn- 
sylvania, and the West. Daily lines of steamers run 
to the St. Lawrence, Niagara, Toronto, and Chicago 
The harbor affords three miles of wharfage on the 
lake and river, and is protected by extensive break- 
waters. The city is a great grain depot and has a 
large trade in Canadian barley and lumber, and in 
Pennsylvania coal. Oswego River falls 110 feet in 
twelve miles, 36 feet within the city limits, and 
affords extensive water-power. There are many 
flouring-mills and iron-works, ship-yards, and the 
most extensive starch-factory in the world. Popula- 
tion, 22,455. 

Elmira. 

a city of Chemung County, is situated on both sides of 
Chemung River and on the Erie and Northern Central 
Railways. It is handsomely laid out in a broad and 



SMALLER CITIES. 297 



fertile valley. Newton Creek, a branch of the 
Chemung, furnishes abundant' water-power. It has 
rolling-mills and other iron-works, flour-mills, brew- 
eries and tanneries. Among other productions are 
boots and shoes, agricultural implements, edge tools, 
and carriages Population, 20,538. 

Kingston^ 

a commercial and manufacturing city of Ulster 
County, is situated on the "Western bank of the Hud- 
son and on Rondout Creek, which forms its harbor, 
and is here navigable for three miles. The city is 
the terminus of the Delaware and Hudson Canal and 
of two railroads. It has four miles of wharfage, and 
employs a large number of steamboats and barges in 
the river trade. It is the centre of the ice industry, 
one of the most important on the Hudson. Hy- 
draulic cement, for which Ulster is noted, is shipped 
to the amount of 1,500,000 pounds a year. Besides 
this there are immense amounts of coal brought by 
the canal ; also blue stone, bricks, lime, and lumber. 
Population, 20,474. 

Poughkeepsie, 

a city of Dutchess County, is mostly situated on high 
land on the East bank of the Hudson River. It is 
the largest city between New York and Albany, and 
is connected with those cities by the Hudson River 
Railroad and several steamboat lines. The Pough- 
keepsie, Hartford and Boston Railroad connects it 
with New England. A great railroad bridge across 
the Hudson is about to be constructed. The city lias 



298 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

an important trade with the neighboring farming dis* 
trict, a large river trade, and extensive manufactures. 
It has a rolling-mill, iron furnaces, and fouuderies, 
and ship-yards. From its educational advantages it 
is sometimes called the "City of Schools." Vassar 
College, for young ladies, is about two miles East of 
the city. Population, 19,859. 

Auburn, 

is a manufacturing city of Cayuga County, on New 
York Central Railroad and Southern Central Rail- 
road, two miles from Owasco Lake, on its outlet, 
which supplies one of the best water-powers of the 
State ; nine dams ; falls 100 feet within city. It 
manufactures cottons, woolens, carpets ; reapers, 
machine-shops, tool-factories, flouring-mills, and 
mowers and other agricultural implements ; and has 
breweries. Valuable lime-stone quarries are within 
the city limits. It is handsomely built on high, un- 
even ground. Population, 18,359. 

Cohoes, 

is a manufacturing city of Albany County, at Cohoes 
Falls, and on the right bank of the Mohawk at its 
confluence with the Hudson, and on Erie Canal near 
its junction with the Champlain Canal ; it has two 
railroads. The Mohawk falls 120 feet in a- mile and 
a half, 70 feet just above the city, and is remarkable 
for its picturesque beauty, besides being one of the 
best water-powers in the United States. Very 
large cotton-mills. Knit-goods a prominent indus- 
try. Cohoes produces about one-third of all hosiery 
made in the United States. Population, 17,516. 



SMALLER CITIES. 299 

Newburgh, 

a city of Orange County, on a plateau and steep 
slope on West bank of the Hudson. Terminus of 
branch of Erie Railway. Ferries to Fishkill, and to 
Dutchess Junction on Hudson River Railroad ; ter- 
minus of New York, Boston and Montreal Railway. 
Important trade with rich agricultural country ; river 
trade ; ships cattle, milk, butter, fruit, etc. Manu- 
factures extensive : machinery, castings, brass, car- 
pets, cotton-goods, paper, soap, and cement-pipe. 
Noted for containing Washington's headquarters, 
and as the place of the disbandment of the army of 
the Revolution. Population, 17,327. 

Yonkers, 

a residential city of Weschester County, on East bank 
of the Hudson, adjoining New York City. Beau- 
tifully situated on rising ground opposite the Pali- 
sades. On Hudson River Railroad and two others. 
Nepperhan, or Saw Mill River, furnishes water- 
power. Considerable manufacturing. Population, 
17,337. 

Long Island City, 

a city of Queens County, near the Western end of 
Long Island, opposite New York, has ten miles of 
water-front on East River and Newtown Creek. 
Wide streets and avenues. Two ferries. Terminus 
of three railroads and freight depot of another. Great 
depot for storage and shipment of kerosene. Lum- 
ber-yards, oil-refineries, pianos, carriages, jewelry, 
etc. Population, 15,609. 



300 GEO GBAPHY OF NEW YORK ST A TE. 

Binghamton, 

a city of Broome Countj^ at junction of Susquehanna 
and Chenango Rivers, and on Chenango Canal and 
Erie Railroad at junction of three others. Hand- 
somely laid out. The Chenango furnishes water- 
power. Numerous manufactures ; flour and lumber. 
Population, 15,550. 

Schenectady, 
a city of Schenectady County, on the South bank of 
the Mohawk and both sides of Erie Canal. On New 
York Central and three other railroads. Largely 
engaged in manufacturing. Broom factories, engine 
and boiler, locomotive, and other iron works ; knit- 
ting mills. Seat of Union College. Population, 

12,748. 

JLockport, 

a city of Niagara County, on Erie Canal and New 
York Central Railroad. In rich agricultural district. 
Large quarries of excellent limestone and sandstone. 
Erie Canal here falls 60 feet by six locks ; surplus 
water furnishes three quarters of a mile of hydraulic 
canal and immense water-power. Flour, saw, cotton, 
and woolen mills. Population, 12,624. 

Rome, 
a city of Oneida County, on West bank of Mohawk, 
at junction of Erie and Black River Canals, and of 
New York Central with two other railroads. Wide 
shaded streets ; public and private parks and foun- 
tains. Large general trade. Numerous manufac- 
turing establishments. Site of Fort Stanwix and 
Battle of Oriskiny. Population, 11,922. 



SMALLER CITIES. 301 



Ogdensburg, 

a city of St. Lawrence County, on St. Lawrence 
River at junction of the Oswegatchie, and four miles 
above the rapids. Regularly laid out and hand- 
somely built. Called the "Maple City" from its 
many and beautiful shade trees. Ferries to Prescott 
in Canada, and a line of many steamers to Chicago. 
Foreign and domestic commerce both important. 
Receives immense quantities of grain and lumber. 
Excellent water-power ; flour, lumber, shingles and 
staves. Population, 10,076. 

Watertown, 

a beautiful commercial and manufacturing city of 
Jefferson County, on Black River, ten miles from its 
mouth in Lake Ontario. Large trade with rich agri- 
cultural country, abounding in ii*on and limestone. 
Railroad connection with New York and the coal 
regions. Abundant water-power. Black River falls 
112 feet in two miles within the city limits. Flour, 
lumber, printing paper, and many other manufac- 
turies. Population, 10,041. 

Hudson, 

a city of Columbia County, beautifully situated on 
high ground on East bank of Hudson River, at the 
head of ship navagation, 116 miles from New York. 
On Hudson River Railroad at terminus of Hudson 
River and Boston Railroad. Connects with New 
York Central by a branch. Large trade ; pressed hay 
the leading article. Extensive manufactures of iron 
and of iron machinery, goods and .wares. Popula- 
tion, 8,828. 



302 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

ORAL GEOGRAPHY. 

State of New tork. 

1. Map and bound the entire State. 

2. How many counties in the State ? 

3. What is a State ? 

4. What is a County ? 

5. Where was the first settlement in New York 
made? 

6. By whom ? 

7. Whence did they come? 

8. In what year? 1614. 

9. Where did they locate ? 

10. Was the State inhabited previous to that time? 

11. By whom, and what becnme of them ? 

12. Describe Lake George. 

13. Describe Lake Erie. 

14. Describe Chautauqua Lake. 

15. Describe Lake Canandaigua. 

16. Describe Crooked Lake. (Keuka). 

17. Describe Seneca Lake. 

18. Describe Cayuga Lake. 

19. Describe Owasco Lake, 

20. Describe Skaneateles Lake. 

21. Describe Oneida Lake. 

22. Describe Otsego Lake. 

23. What river is the outlet of Lake Erie ? 

24. Of Lake Ontario ? 

25. Of Lake Champlain? 

26. What outlet has Canandaigua Lake? 

27. Crooked Lake? 

28. Seneca Lake ? 



OBAL QTIESTIONINa. 303 

29. Cayuga Lake ? 
80. OwascoLake? 
31. Oneida Lake? 
32 Skaneateles Lake ? 

33. Lake George? 

34. What river receives the waters from the central 
lakes? 

35. In what direction do the waters of each lake 
flow? 

86. What lake between Yermont and New York? 
37 What lakes between New York and Canada ? 

38. Describe Niagara River. 

39. Mohawk River. 

40. St. Lawrence River, 

41. Genesee River. 

42. Harlem River. 

43. East River. 

44. Hudson River. 

45. Through what counties does the Mohawk River 
flow ? 

46. Of what is Mohawk River a Branch? 

47. What is a branch ? 

48. What river flows into the east end of Lake 
Ontario? 

49. What mountains in New York ? 

50. Where are the Adirondack mountains? 

51. Where are the Catskill mountains ? 

52. Where are the Highlands? 

53. Which is the highest mountain in New York ? 

54. Its elevation ? 

55. What bay in the southern part of the State ? 



304 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

56. Where is Manhattan or New York Island, and 
what waters surround it? 

57. Staten Island ? 

58. Long Island? 

59. Goat Island? 

60. Thousand Islands? 

61. What Island west of Long Island? 

62. What Sound between Long Island and Con- 
necticut ? 

63. Describe the Erie Canal. 
6-i. Genesee Valley Canal. 

65. Oswego Canal. 

66. Chenango Canal. 

67. By what railroad would you travel from Utica 
to Binghamton ? 

68. What canal crosses the State ? 

69. Its length? 364 miles. 

70. What waters does it connect? 

71. What city at the east end ? 

72. What city at the west end ? 

78. On what canal can you sail from Lake Erie to 
Lake Ontario? 

74. On what canal do you sail from Lake Erie to 
Hudson River? 

75. On what canal do you sail from Syracuse to 
Oswego ? 

76. On what water can you sail from New York to 
Albany ? 

77. On what water can you sail from Albany to 
Bufialo? 

78. How many cities in the State of New York ? 



OBAL QUESTIONING. 305 

79. Locate and describe the following cities, and 
give the population of each : 

Rochester, Auburn, 

Syracuse, Utica, 

Troy, Schenectady, 

Albany, Poughkeepsie, 

Elmira, New York, 

Brooklyn, Rome, 

Buffalo, Binghamton, 

Hudson, Kingston, 

Long Island City, Lockport, 

Newburg, Ogdensburg, 

Oswego, Waterrown, 

Yonkers, Cohoes. 

80. What city of New York is the seat of govern- 
ment ? 

81. Mention the the State buildings in Albany. 

82. How many State Senators convene at Albany ? 

83. Their term of office ? 

84. How many Assemblymen ? 

85. Their term of office ? 

86. What constitutes our Senatorial District ? 

87. What constitutes our Assembly District ? 

88. Give the population of the State. 

89. Its area in square miles. 

90. In the basin of what great rivers is New York? 
9L Trace those rivers on the map. 

Uow to Draw the Outline oi New York State. 

The first point will represent the north-eastern 
extremity of New York. Name it " 1 ; " the second 
point one inch below the first, name it " 3 ; " the third 



306 GEOaRAPHT OF NEW YORK STATE. 

point one inch below the second, name it " 3 ; " the 
fourth point one inch below the third, name it " 4 ;" 
one inch at the left of point "3" a point, name it 
'• 5 ; " two and a fourth inches to the left of "5" a 
point, name it *' 6 ; " one-half an inch above " 6 " a 
point, name it " 7 ; " one-half an inch to the ri^iiht of 
••7" a point, name it "8;" one-fourth of an inch 
above " 8 " a point, name it " 9 ; " place a point mid- 
way between "9 " and " 2," name it " 10 ;" one-half 
of an inch above *' 10 " a point, name it " 11 ; " three- 
fourths of an inch at the left of " 1 " a point, name 
it " 12 ; " place a point mid-way between '*2" and 
*'3," and a point mid- way between "3" and "4 ;" 
one and one-fifth inches to the right of point " 4 " 
and a little above, a point, and name it " 13 •," this 
point will indicate the eastern extremity of Long 

Island. 

Blackboard Outline. 

The unit of measurement may here be 10 inches. 
Whatever length the unit may be, it represents the 
length of Lake Champlain, which is 134 miles. 

From 2 to 3, from 8 to 4, and from 3 to 5 each are 
equal to the first distance. The Northern boundary 
of Massachusetts is midway between 2 and 3. 

From 5 to 6 is two and one-fourth times the first 
distance, and it is in line with the Southern boundary 
of Massachusetts. From 6 to 7 and from 7 to 8 are 
each one-half of first distance. Lake Ontario ex- 
tends as far West as the State ; its Eastern shore is 
midway between the Niagara River and the Eastern 
boundary of the State, and the distance between the 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHEB. JJ07 

Southern shore and the Southern boundary of the 
State is three-fourths of the first distance. The 
width of Lake Ontario is one-half of the first dis- 
tance. From 1 to 12 is three-fourths of the first 
distance. 

Suggestions to the Teacher. 

The teacher should draw the map on the black- 
board to a certain scale, and require the pupils to 
draw the same on the blackboard, slates or paper. 
The teacher should furnish a measure for the children, 
and require them to reproduce a correct drawing of 
the map. Measures either six inches or one foot long, 
as desired, may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
Syracuse, for SI. 00 a hundred 

The physical features should be represented first ; 
these and other conditions are antecedent to the facts 
of descriptive geography. 

Helps in Teaching Geography. 

In teaching the geography of New York State, the 
first requisite is a good Map of the State. Of late 
years this has been difficult to procure. The map 
drawn by John H. French and published in 1858 by 
Robert Pearsall Smith, is now scarce and costly, as 
well as old. A new map has just been published, 
however, three and a half feet by four, giving county 
boundaries and with the towns brightly colored. It 
costs $2.00, and should hang in very school-room in 
the State. 

For young scholars, and indeed for older ones too, 
Dissected Maps are of great value. Two of these 



308 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 

are published at 75 cents each, one of New York 
State, cut up into counties, and the other of the 
United States, cut up into states. To properly phice 
these counties and states impresses their rchitive 
positions very eflectively. 

Of books relating to the history and characteristic 
features of New York State, the Historical and 
Statistical Gazeteer, published at the same time with 
French's Map, is now scarce and out of date, and no 
similar work has since been published. The His- 
tory of New York State, by S. S, Randall, formerly 
Deputy State Superintendent, will be found interest- 
ing and of great value. The price is $1.50. 

The Natural History of the State of New York, 
in twenty-two large quarto volumes, profusely illus- 
trated, is indeed a magnificant work, having cost the 
State some $500,000. Complete sets are rare, and 
worth $100.00 or more ; but separate volumes in 
Zoology, Botany, Geology, etc., can frequently be 
purchased at comparatively low rates, and should be 
eagerly studied by the teacher. 

Any ot the above may be purchased of Davis, 
Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 



HISTORY, 
INTRODUCTION. 

Our schools can permit their pupils to devote but 
a small portion of their time to the study of history. 
If all other studies were neglected, a life time is 
much too short to acquaint one's-self fully with all 
the facts of history. 

The facts of history comprise the sum of the events 
that man has brought about in all the teeming cen- 
turies since first he inhabited the earth. The number 
is beyond the power of imagination to conceive, and 
Historians do not attempt to enumerate them. They 
describe some of the grandest and most interesting 
features of a nation's life, and leave the rest to be 
inferred or forgotten. 

Study the Causes. 

History describes the past conditions and actions 
of men, and investigates the causes which have 
operated to produce them. History should be taught 
from a series of progressive stand-points. 

In the history of every nation there are certain 
prominent events from which as centres other 
minor events have seemed to emanate, and to which 
they bear reference. It is only of these great events 



310 HISTORY. 

that "we need to know the dates or the minute par 
ticulars. It is a useless waste of time and labor to 
commit to memory a great number of dates to be 
speedily forgotten. Only such dates should be 
committed to memory as are indispensible as land- 
marks in history. The sequence of events, rather 
than the precise date of each, is what is chiefly nec- 
essary. 

Ordinary Methods Useless, 

The teaching that goes under this name in schools 
is generally a farce. It consists usually in stringing 
together the names and dates with a few facts of the 
least important kind. Or, if more is attempted, it is 
reading in a text-book ; in which case generally 
there Is little within a child's sympathy or compre- 
hension, and together are often jumbled, without 
purpose or method, facts of the most diverse kind, 
from which it is impossible to gain a clear concep- 
tion of any of its elements. When such an array of 
facts are given as a whole to a child, they can produce 
nothing but embarrassment. 

Conditions Under which Taujfht. 

The conditions under which history is likely to be 
taught must be fully understood before determining 
what to attempt or how to attempt it. When school 
life is short, little, if anything, can be done. Reading, 
writing and arithmetic must be taught ; if the pupils 
remain in school a few years instead of a few months 
teachers may be able to give one or two lessons 
weekly ; these should be oral lessons. If they pass 
through the grades they should take it up as one of 



DISCIPLINE ANB INFLUENCE. 311 

the regular studies. In our common schools much 
time cannot be given to it consistently with the 
claims of other studies ; yet it should receive atten- 
tion and a certain number of lessons should be given 
every term. 

History of Their Own Country. 

A knowledge of the history of their own country 
is about all that can be expected of pupils in our 
common schools, but in the higher schools it should 
be extended to universal history. 

No one can well do without this knowledge, and 
to the citizens it seems indispensable. The law should 
require the history of the United States to be taught 
in every school. 

Intellectual Discipline. 

The study of history furnishes a valuable intel- 
lectual discipline. To this end a simple preliminary 
outline sketch should be carefully fixed in the minds 
of the pupils. We would refer the teacher to the 
lessons on history. 

Moral Influence. 

History presents many examples of good and great 
men and women who honored by their noble deeds 
the age and country in which they lived. 

Moral examples have more influence upon the 
young than moral precepts. The heart is more easily 
moved to virtue by incidental teaching than by 
direct teaching. The great deeds of the past have 
been done by beings like themselves, and they 
cannot repjst t)^e (iegipe to know thern. In this study 



312 HIST OB Y. 

they see life ; in other studies they come into the 
possession - of interesting facts and principles by 
observation and by experiment. 

The history of such men as Washington, Franklin, 
Lincoln, and scores of others, will prove an incen- 
tive to American youth, and the moral seeds sown 
in open hearts will germinate and eventually pro- 
duce rich fruit. 

Little Interest in the Study. 

The reason why pupils take so little interest in the 
study of history is principally on account of the 
fragmentary manner in which the subject is presented 
in our text-books. Lessons in history should be 
assigned by topics, and not by pages. All verbatim 
recitations of sentences and paragraphs should be 
strtctly forbidden, and the pupils should be required 
to state the facts in their own language. 

Necessity of a Knowledge of History. 

It should be taught as a methodical record of im- 
portant events. To every American citizen some 
knowledge of the history of his country is useful ; 
he should know of the founding, progress and 
growth of liberty in his own country. Towards the 
preservation of good government and the permanency 
of our institutions, it is necessary that the principles 
of government and the leading events of history be 
taught in our American schools. 

The idea of national unity and patriotism should 
rise above the stripes of party and the turmoils of war, 
and plant itself as the one thing vital to American 



METHODS OF TE AGEING. S13 

institutions. That the subject of history may secure 

attention from the teacher, and study from the 

pupils, is the sincere wish of every loyal American 

citizen. 

Methods of Teaching History. 

I. Directions. 

1. Interest the pupils by a familiar talk. 

2. Examine the lessons with the pupils. 

3. Draw maps and locate important places. 

4. Let the maps be examined and criticised. 

5. Bring out the prominent, salient facts, with 
clearness. 

6. Require pupils to classify and tabulate the 
lesson, and recite from the tabulation. 

7. Do not require dates too freely. 

8. Let the pupils state the causes of the different 
wars, and their effects. 

9. Teach history as a methodical record of im- 
portant events. 

10. An Otjective Representation should be given 
by means of maps and charts ; drawings and diagrams 
should be placed on the board of all the important 
matters in the history of the nation. 

History, (Model Form.) 

/. Directions. 

1. What event? 

2. What causes ? 

3. What battle ? 

4. What time ? 

5. What place? 

6. What persons ? 



314 HISTORY. 



7. What means ? 

8. What losses? 

9. What results? 

Taking the directions for the model form, we have 
the following lesson : Histoi'y of ilie Battle of Bunker 
Hill 

1. What event ? Revolutionary War. 

f 1. nights of arbitrary 



I government claimed 



fl. Remote^ by the British. 
I I 2. Character of the 

i. What causes? ■{ [ King George III. 



[2. Direct, j 1. Importation Act. 
I 2. Stamp Act. 



3. What Battle? Bunker Hill. 

4. What time? 1775, June 17th. 

5. What place? Breed's Hill. 

r American f^^^ ^^°- ^^^^• 

Generds J ^^^ ^^°- P'^'^^"' 
irenerais. ^ ^^^ ^^^ Putnam. 

\^{d) Gen. Warren. 

6. What persons?^ 

{{a) Gen. Gage. 
British [b) Gen. Howe. 

Generals.-^ (c) Gen Clinton. 
id) Gen. Bur- 

goyne 

7 What mean^ ? J ^' American— limited. 
'• What means ^ -j ^^ British— unlimited. 

fl. American — 

115 killed, 305 wounded 
8. What losses? ■{ and 32 prisoners. 

I 2. British— 
( 1054 killed and wounded. 



REVIEWS. 315 



1. Remote — 
Gaining our Inde- 

fl. American.-! pendence, 

2. Direct- 
Encouraging, 

1. Remote — 
Defeated, 

2. Direct- 
Discouraging. 

This model form may apply to a period of our 
country's history, or to a battle of that period. 

Associate, as far as possible, geographical knowl- 
edge with the historical. 



9. What results? \ 

I 

12. British. 



Tabulated Forms. 

1. Discoveries and Explorations. 

2. Settlements, 

3. Wars and Adjustment of rival claims, culmi- 
nating in the birth of the nation. 

4. Period of Presidents. 

Reviews. 

1. Chronological. 

2. Biographical, 

3. Geographical, 

The review should take three distinct forms. In the 
Chronological, the pupil should state all of the prin- 
cipal dates ; in the Biographical all that has been 
learned in regard to particular individuals; and in the 
Geographical, whatever he can state of all important 
facts relating to the history of a locality. 

These reviews may be made spirited exercises, by 
requesting the class to write a few of the essential 
dates, the sequence of important events, the names 



316 HISTORY. 



of important individuals. The system of the re- 
views above suggested must, if faithfully carried out, 
result in a thorough unifying of the general subiect 

of history. 

Incidental Lessons. 

Many of the facts of history may be given in read- 
ing, and especially in geography lessons. Such facts 
would embrace pictures of social condition, growth 
of manufactures and of populous districts, actions 
that have made celebrated, particular places, and in- 
cidents in the lives of remarkable men. 

Such facts are to be given that the mind, furnished 
with some of the material of history, may pursue 
with more advantage to itself its systematic study. 

Lessons on any subject are thus more adhesive than 
when given to a mind entirely ignorant of it. 

Remarks. — In all your teaching the principle of 
proceeding from the known to the unknown must 
be followed. A clear picture of the present must be 
drawn, embracing, in their order, all of the above 
particulars. The method, whatever it may be, 
should quicken the pupils' observation, and lead 
them to see some importance in the matters of every- 
day life. Every succeeding lesson should bring up 
vividly the condition of man in the past, and com- 
pare it, in its several particulars, with things now. 
This will make more and more evident how great 
has been the change, and how much for the better. 
The pupils should see how events, both great and 
small, have contributed to the prosperity and the 
advancement of the people. 



C UL Tl VA TE THE INTELLECT. Sll 



Aim in reaching History. 

The aim might be to cultivate the intellect, for 
which it has rich aud varied matter adapted to exer- 
cise each of its faculties. 

The aim in teaching history should be to inculcate 
those moral lessons which it is the office of history to 
teach by example. What, for instance, could be 
better adapted to produce a spirit of contentment and 
thankfulness, than a clear knowledge of the present 
condition of our country, with its superiority over 
that of other nations ? What better opportunity can 
be desired for showing and enforcing the necessity of 
character and skilled industry than is afforded, while 
tracing the improvements and the progress of oui 
nation for the past one hundred years? 



ELEMENTARY NATURAL 
SCIENCE. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Can the Natural Sciences be profitably taiigbt to 
the average pupils in our schools? Our first inquiry 
leads us to distinguish between the natural and the 
artificial studies to which the children are introduced- 

The child's mind is an instrument for acquiring 
rather than using knowledge. He voluntarily begins 
the study of nature. Here he goes to school long 
before bis parents send him. He touches with child- 
hand many forces, and tries to grasp them. His 
studies are natural, for they are in the order of his 
mental devilopement. Study is play; play is study. 
The objective part of mathematics uufolds to him 
the shapes and numbers of things. He begins physics 
with the weight of his toy, or watching the ripple 
and dash of brook, or the whirl of the water wheel. 
He opens his botany when he plucks a flower, dis- 
tinguishing color and form. He notices the material 
of rocks, and gathers various stones like a zealous 
mineralogist. 

A child confined as most of our pupils are to the 
reading, writing and arithmetic method of discipline, 



FA CTS BEFORE L QIC. 31 9 

might as well be brought up in a desert as in the 
world of beauty and power which surrounds him. 
His eyes are gradually closed to a thousand alluring 
truths; his ears are dulled to the myriad voices of 
nature. It is a just inference from these considera- 
tions, and an acknowledged fact, that, to a majority 
of pupils in the public schools, the acquiring of 
knowledge is uninteresting and positively irksome. 

But right teaching requires that the child's powers 
of knowing accurately, should be developed, and 
hence should begin and largely continue with his 
senses. Words and number, over which so much time 
is spent in reading, spelling and arithmetical problems, 
are valuable to his mental development, as they are 
associated with things really known. Hence the ele- 
ments of science furnish the proper material for such 
study. Knowledge is not power to the child, if it is 
abstract. He cannot use knowledge which lies be- 
yond the sphere of his daily observation and experi- 
ence. What the State needs is intelligent citizens, 
and intelligent youth from whom they can be made. 
These come of the power of knowing and judging 
accurately. We claim for the Natural Sciences this 
effect on the child. They deal with facts more sen- 
sible than those of arithmetic. The parts of a leaf 
or a flower are definite, easily comprehended, and 
classified with certainty. This is true of the nature 
and species of the common animals, shells and in- 
sects, the constituents of a stone, the qualities of an 
acid or gas, the history of a rock traced in forms of 
life, the nature and effect even of geological changes. 

No wide range of knowledge is required to under- 



320 ELEMENT AB Y NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 

Stand definitely and surely scientific facts simply pre* 
sented to the youthful mind. It easily comprehends 
them as a whole. "We claim, therefore, that to what- 
ever degree the reasoning faculties should be devel- 
oped 'to furnish the child-mind with power, this is 
best secured by its reasoning on facts and things 
rather than on ideas of the imagination, or history, 
or morals, to which children's studies are usually 
confined. The last knowledge gained by man is the 
correct understanding of Unman nature, or the causes 
of human actions. The sciences teach the relations 
of cause and efiect in their clearest manifestations. 
With enlarged comprehension the child may learn 
the secondary character of causes He will trace 
their relation to effects with the certainty of convic- 
tion to his mind. Thence will be imparted the ele- 
ment of positiveness to the pupil's acquirements and 
habits of character. He learns to act unwaveringly 
on what he knows, and to know positively that upon 
which he acts. Correcting by his own observations 
the conclusion to which he is lead by the inductive 
methods of scince, he gains independence in thought 
with that confidence in his own powers of judging 
which are the safeguards in his character and of his 
rights as a freeman under our republican institutions 
Thus early introduce-d to the elements of science, 
the foundations of his character as a citizen are more 
broadly laid. The child becomes more excursive in 
thought, more inventive through familiarity with the 
mechanisms of nature, and more appreciative of the 
wealth and beauty of his country's resources. Taught 
to observe, he never ceases to be aflTec^-ed by the 



8E0 ULD IT BE TA TiaET ? 321 

changing lines and hues in nature which his daily 
vision embraces, and the elements of a true esthetic 
culture find place in him which will add to his cer- 
tain worth and power as a citizen. The old idea that 
knowledge is for discipline is faithfully maintainec 
in our education. Yet knowledge is one of the nat- 
ural desires of the mind. The true science of educa- 
tion will make it a pleasure. This will require for 
the senses larger opportunity than they now enjoy 
Moreover, we owe to the State and its free institu 
lions, to raise the standard of intelligence and cul- 
ture among the people, among mechanics, farmers, 
merchants, and laborers in the mill or the street. A 
discernment of the true nature and qualities of things 
in their daily use will secure this far better than drills 
in spelling, arithmetic and grammar. The mass of 
our citizens are not intelligent enough to understand 
one-half the instruction contained in a good weekly 
newspaper. 

We ritake, therefore, this demand for the sciences 
— first, that they have an equal place with the usual 
studies of primary and grammar and district schools ; 
secondly, that our teachers be required to make plain 
the elements of the sciences to pupils below fourteen 
years of age, at the expense of rote-drills and prob- 
lems in arithmetic, grammatical analysis, spelling 
without definitions, and the time spent in preparing 
for pretentious written examinations, imposed at too 
early an age, that have become one of the worst 
abuses of an artificial system in public-school woik. 

We are concerned next with the methods of teach- 
ing these sciences in district schools, or grades below 



322 ELEMENTABY NATURAL SCIENCE. 

the high school. The efforts of authors of element- 
ary text-books in science are not entirely successful; 
most of them are still too technical. There is less 
vividness in the statement of the facts of science, less 
personification and idealizing of the study than a 
child's apprehension demands. The ancients taught 
their children the forces and sounds and shapes of 
the waters and fields and forests, by personifications 
of nymphs and dryads, gods and godesses, in whose 
histories and habits they were personally interested. 
So should the stories of insects, fishes, mollusks, 
birds, and well-known animals, or of plants and 
stones, be told without text-books by the teacher, with 
scientific truthfulness as to their modes of life and 
motion. Thus children would become familiar with 
their living forms. With text-books still defective, 
the teacher's opportunity lies in what President Hill 
calls the incidental method. Let her have specimens 
of minerals, leaves, insects, flowers, pictures of birds 
and animals, and simple apparatus for illustrating 
chemical and physical forces, in order to make real 
to her classes the subjects of the lesson. By a hun- 
dred well-selected stereoscopic pictures she could 
teach physical and political geography as effectively 
as the shapes, circles, and seasons of the earth by a 
globe. Thus the text-book in the hands of a sugges- 
tive and excursive teacher will become secondary to 
her personal power to make knowledge real and in- 
teresting to the youngest pupils in her classes. Yet 
the text-book in science will give the study equal 
dignity to the arithmetic in the mind of the scholar, 



PURPOSES OF OBJECT TEACHINa. 323 

while it corrects the unscientific or garrulous ten- 
dencies of the teacher. 

Moreover, no other studies will so naturally develop 
the personal power of the teacher. Proceediug 
by the method of nature, step by step from the 
known to the unknown, she will awaken enthusiasm 
in the class, and from the fulness of her devotion to 
the subject there will be an overflow into the minds 
of the pupils. Rote-teaching in these elements of 
science is utterly defenceless. Every class of fects 
and every principle involved should have illustration 
from the wide range of nature. The living way of 
Sauveur in language, should be applied to the scien- 
ces. Every sense and power of the child can be 
grasped and applied to them by the live teacher. 

Chief Purposes of Object Lessoos. 

The cliief purposes of the object lessons are two: 
first, to cultivate habits of careful observation and 
reflection ; and second, to give facility in oral de- 
scription. When properly given they involve the 
systematfc discipline of the perceptive faculties and 
of the judgement, the imagination and the memory of 
facts, and in the use of language. 

The method that should be pursued is that known 
as the objective method. This presents two distinct 
though intimately related departments; perceptive 
teaching, in which the object, as an acorn, an egg^ a 
leaf, or a piece of coal, is directly presented to the 
pupil's senses ; and conceplive teaching in which im- 
pressions previously received are recalled, arranged 
and utilized, the objects themselves being presented 



324 ELEMENTARY NATUBAL SCIENCE. 

to the senses during the lesson. A lesson upon an 
oak, an elephant, or a thunder storm would fall 
under the latter department. The use of pictures, 
models, or other seusible representations of objects, 
is an important combination and modification of 
the two departments. 

Definitions ^\\o\x\di be very sparingly introduced, and 
never in the first stages of a subject. If given at all, 
they should sum up knowledge already attained. 
They should be as brief as possible and should be 
carefully prepared for by a process at once inductive 
and objective. The words organic, inorganic, vege- 
table, animal aud mineral, are prominent among the 
very few terms requiring definition. In every stage 
of the lessons, with the exception of a few indispen- 
sable definitions, the language used by the pupil 
should be entirely his own, and all set fornis of 
words should be carefully avoided. "Familiar ob- 
jects," and familiar animals, plants and minerals 
should take precedence of all others in the selection 
of topics. 

The process employed will necessarily present two 
distinct stages in accordance with the two chief pur- 
poses of these lessons already referred to. The first 
may be called the analytic or preparatory, and fur- 
nishes the principal discipline of the powers of ob- 
servation and reflection. In this stage, which is largely 
conversational, the teacher leads the pupils by ques- 
tions or otherwise to discover or remember the prop- 
erties or peculiarities of an object, or to state any 
other important facts associated with it. The points 
Ihus considered should be written upon the black- 



VA UTIONS AS TO OBJECT LESSONS. 325 

board in very brief synoptical form, but each only 
after it has been dwelt upon. 

The vital element in this part of the work, that 
which gives it a living interest to the pupil, is the 
discovery or learning of new facts or the gaining of 
new ideas about the object under consideration. It 
is evident that from the nature of the case this im- 
portant element must be chiefly limited to the first 
presentation of the object. Reviews, although for 
certain purposes indispensable, soon become, at least 
as far as this element is concerned, much like " a 
thrice-told tale." This makes it all the more import- 
ant that the teacher should have an outline of the 
lesson carefully prepared beforehand, so as to be sure 
to include the points most likely to be interesting 
and instructive. Any additional point or fact after- 
wards drawn from the class may be readily incor- 
porated. 

It should also be remembered that the effort to 
'* develop the perceptive powers '* of children has 
its limit, especially when applied to large classes. In 
teaching a little group of four or five, comparatively 
little difficulty should be found by ihe skilful teacher 
But when the class ranges in number from forty to 
sixty in the grammar school, and to seventy-five in 
the primary, and when at the same time owing to the 
pressure of the other and more directly important 
exercises of a graded school the time given to oral 
lessons is limited to a very few minutes, it is very 
-evident that the problem is a very different and a 
much more formidable one. 

In the first lesson upon any given object or phe- 



326 ELEMENTARY NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 



nomenon, unless great care is ttikcn to prevent it, a 
few pupils of naturally quick perceptions will give 
most of the responses, and the rest of the class will 
thus be as really "told " by their classmates as if the 
information had been given by the teacher. 

It is true that in both cases there is an exercise of 
the perceptive faculties ; but it is obvious that the 
mental condition in which we follow and verify a 
statement made by another is usually one of far less 
vigorous and profitable activity than that in which 
we discover a fact of ourselves. The former may be 
called the perception of discovery, the latter the per- 
ception of verification. Nevertheless, from the very 
nature and condition of class-teaching, the lower and 
less profitable form of the mental exercise will be 
the predominating one. The methods of reducing 
this evil to a practical minimum will be obvious to 
the experienced teacher. It is also w^ell for us to 
consider how large a part of what we call our own 
knowledge has become ours only through our verify- 
ing the statements and perceptions of others. 

The processes and results of this first or preparatory 

stage of the work, important and interesting as they 

may be, are entirely subordinate to the second stage. 

The preparatory stage collects the material for the 

work that is to follow : the lumber, lime, bricks and 

stone for the edifice that is now to be constructed 

with them. 

Subject— Salt. 

Let us suppose that the subject of our lesson is 
Salt. The teacher has given the lesson with due at- 
tention to the requirements of the objective method 



OBJECT LESSON : SALT. 327 



The qualities, as learned by the senses, the kinds, uses 
and sources of salt have been considered. To these 
points have been added the chief source of our own 
supply, the singular fact that it is a mineral food, its 
necessity to the health of the body, a brief reference 
to its ancient use as a symbol of hospitality and to 
certain superstitions which still cling to it, together 
with such other simple and interesting facts as seemed 
appropriate. 

In that stage of the lesson which we have now 
reached, the chief discipline is of the memory of 
facts. "What do you know or remember about 
salt ?" should be the teacher's only question, except 
when an error is made in the statement of facts, 
when a proper question or two should lead to its 
correction, not by the teacher, but by the class. The 
points as written upon the blackboard in tlie order 
in which the pupils remember them will be some- 
thing like the following, omitting the prefixed 
numerals, which will presently be explained : 

Salt. 

3. Taste, 9. Springs, 6. Made into Soda, 

4. Seasoning, 10. Ocean, 2. Soluble 

1 White, 11. Sparkling, 13. Hospitality, 

7. Kinds, 12. Granular, 14. Superstitions, 

8. Mines, 5. Preserves meat and fish. 

The next step is to have the class, not the teacher, 
condense and arrange this miscellaneous list of items 
into a brief and orderly synopsis. This is a point of 
prime importance, but is so simple in practice that 
any ordinary class will need but one illustration in 
order to apply the principle. With beginners this 



328 ELEMENTARY NATUBAL SCIENCE. 

will be best understood by illustrating with some 
short story — one well-known to the pupils is best. 
Whittington and his Cat would do admirably. Write 
the chief points of the legend on the blackboard in 
brief, synoptical form, but in an absurdly illogical 
order : 

" Whittington — a chest of gold — goes to sea — born 
in London — Mayor — cat given him — dies respected — 
poor boy, etc., etc." 

If now the teacher will begin to tell the story, fol- 
lowing the exact order of the synopsis, the class will 
soon object, and may readily be led to number the 
items in the order in which they should be stated in 
telling the story. 

A very little practice will enable a class to number 
the items relating to salt substantially as they are 
numbered in the synopsis already given. When 
these are arranged according to the principles of 
object teaching, they will condense into — 

Salt, 

1. Qualities — 3: White; soluble; saline taste. 

2. Kinds — 3 : Rock ; bay ; table. 

3. Uses — 3: Seasoning; preserving meat, etc. ; soda. 

4. Sources — 3 : Mines ; springs ; ocean. 

5. Associations — 2 : Hospitality ; superstitions. 

In making up a final synopsis such as this, great 
care should be taken not to overload a subject by a 
multiplicity of details. To accomplish this, only the 
mDst important items of the irregular synopsis should 
be taken. To attempt more is to cause the lesson to 
break of its own weight. Most of the objects prop- 



SUGGESTIONS FOB OBJECT LESSONS. 329 

erly selected as the basis of the lessons of the lower 
grades may readily be reduced to from seven to ten 
items. The smaller the number the better. 

Now what use is to be made of this synopsis ? It 
is obvious that if the pupil has the synopsis before 
him on the blackboard and is called upon to state 
without being questioned what he knows about salt, 
the synopsis will be to him a brief set of arranged 
suggestions or notes, and that with a little practice he 
will be able with its aid to make a " continuous oral 
statement," But a much more important use can be 
made of this synopsis. 

The next step is to train the class to reproduce it 
for themselves. This will be found to be of great 
practical importance, and is indeed indispensable. 
The memory will now be called into exercise to re- 
member the facts and the brief notes with which 
they are associated. The judgment will be trained 
to arrange them in their logical order of sequence. 
When by many lessons this has been made a mental 
habit, the influence of the training will be felt upon 
all the other school lessons, as well as through life. 
There are several ways of accomplishing this step of 
reproducing the synopsis. The following is one of 
the most simple, expeditious and efficient. Skilful 
teachers will readily devise methods of their own : 

First— 'SSfviie the seven to ten or more items upon 
the blackboard in their proper order. This has 
already been determined by the pupil. Place its 
proper number before each item. 

Second— I^qW the pupils to look carefully at the 
items and try to remember tliem, and that you will 



S30 ELEMENT AR Y NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 

presently require them to be written in the same way 
upon the slates and from memory. 

Third — Cover the synopsis with a newspaper or 
the convenient screen, and at a given signal let the 
pupils try to reproduce it upon their slates. 

Fourth — Call upon one to read what he has written, 
and let the rest of the class, without looking upon 
their slates, tell what he has omitted or what error 
he has made. Then give all a brief opportunity to 
correct and complete. Have the slates cleaned, and 
ivy once or twice more, if necessary, until a reason- 
ably correct result is obtained. Clean the synopsis 
from the blackboard. 

Fifth — The final step is obvious. It is that for 
which all that precedes has been the preparation. Let 
a sufiBcient number of pupils be called upon one after 
another to make a conne-cted oral statement of such 
facts and ideas as each can properly recall, glancing 
from time to time, as he may find it necessary, at the 
synopsis upon his slate. 

Specimen Otoject Lesson* 
The Bear — Use Pictures. 

Special points to be developed. 

Parts — Broad head ; strong, clumsy body, covered 
with long coarse hair ; stout thick legs, short tail ; large, 
slightly pointed ears; small, bright eyes; front teeth 
in both jaws; canine teeth (two in each jaw), long, 
strong and slightly curved backwards; molars broad 
and surmounted with tubercles; five toes on each 
foot, each having a long, stout curved claw or nail, 
fitted for digging or climbing (not retractile). Sole of 
toot naked; simple stomach. 



OBJECT LESSON: THE BEAB. 831 

Habits. 
Eats animal and vegetable food ; walks on its flat 
feet (hence called plantigrade) ; climbs trees, noc- 
turnal ; stands readily on hind feet ; uses fore feet for 
defence by striking or hugging. 

Uses. 
Flesh, leather, fur, curiosity. 
Dwell on adaptation of parts to habits and uses. 

Miscellaneous and Popular. 

Cunning, unsocial ; spends the winter in caves in 
hollow trees, almost without £*od ; dangerous and 
formidable ; sometimes called Bruin. (Why ?) 

A few lessons should be given with the use of pic- 
tures, upon the lion, tiger, wolf, fox, raccoon. The 
cat, dog and bear being the types of the families to 
which they respectively belong, the matter furnished 
above will serve in all essential particulars for class- 
ifying the other animals. 

Give lessons on likenesses and differences ; from 
the former get the idea and term carnivorous, and 
from the latter the following : 

f Cat family. 

Carnivorous Animals^ gp^ «« 

KoTE. — The other families of this order are not 
given, because to attempt so much would defeat the 
object of the lessons. 

Models for identifying or describing : 

Oral. 
The lion is a wild, ferocious, toe-walking animal 
that belongs to the cat family of carnivorous animala 



332 ELEMENT AB T NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 



Written* 
Wild. 

Digitigrade [ Cat family. 

Claws retractile. J ^ 



Carniverous 
Animals. 



Front teeth in both jaws. 
Canine, long hooked, 

fitted for tearing. 
Molars, uneven, sharp, 

fitted for cutting. 
^ Simple stomach. 



- Carnivorous. 



After each animal studied has been identified ac- 
cording to plans given, and a general talk had upon 
the whole order, a composition should be written 
upon the subject. Carnivorous Animals. 

Several weeks may be spent profitably upon a com- 
parison of Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. 

The following points are suggested : 

Kinds of teeth. - - Kinds of food. 



Kinds of stomachs. 

Shape and comparative' 
size of trunks, espec- 
ially the abdominal 
region. 

Acuteness of senses. 



Pliability of 
structure. 



osseous 



Nature of food. 



Quantity of food- 



j Manner of obtaining 
( food. 

j Manner of obtaining 
{ food. 



FOUMTILA FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 333 



Freedom of motion of ) _ j Manner of obtaining 
the limbs. f ' 1 food. 



( General habits , man 
Kinds of feet. - - < ner of obtaining 

( food. 

I Obstacles to be over- 
\ come in obtaining 
food. 



Muscular power. 
(Relative.) 

Limbs as weapons of 
offence or defence. 






The animal in each or- 

fhe type! '^'"''^^ ^'''''^ \ " ^««^' ^^^^^ ^^"^« ) 
(Hog, bear.) 

The work indicated by this paper will require more 
time than that of the preceding papers. 

General Formula. 

I. BirectionSt 

1. Let the pupils describe the apparatus. 

2. Let the pupils perform the experiments. 
8. Let the pupils announce the experimenlF. 

4. Use simple objects and illustrations. 

5. Proceed by rudimentary facts. 

6. Proceed by individual cases to deduce laws. 

7. Let the principles be developed by the pupils. 

8. Let the pupils perceive that we arrive at results 
by three different ways : 1st, by observation ; 2d, by 
experiment; 3d, by effects. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Speak slowly. 

2. Repeat carefully. 



834 ELEMENTARY NATUBAL SCIENCE, 

3. Use simple language. 

4. Write points on the board. 

5. Require pupils to copy. 

6. Keep close to the subject. 

7. Require pupils to answer in complete statements. 

8. Repeat experiments and illustrations. 

9. Reproduce each lesson carefully. 

10. Never use a term that has not been fully devel- 
oped. 

1 1 . Guide the pupil's thoughts, but do not lead them. 

12. Arrange a definite plan. 

13. Work so as to secure and hold attention. 

14. Let your object be to guide pupils to see clearly 
and infer correctly. 

General Formula. 

I. Objects should he presented, 

1. To the senses, or perception. 

2. To the reflective or reasoning powers. 

3. Their features should be thoroughly memorized. 

IT. Ideas are developed j 

1. By appealing to the senses. 

2. By comparison. 

3. By experiment. 

4. By reason. 

Lesson on Divisibility. 

The teacher should have on the table different arti- 
cles, as slips of wood, a lump of coal, piece of 
glass, brick, stone, etc., glass jar containing water, 
cochineal, carmine, etc. 



LESSOI^ ON DIVISIBILITY. 335 

First, let the pupils describe the articles, as " You 
hold in your hand a piece of pine wood ten inches 
in length, two inches in breadth and one-half an inch 
in thickness." See that they express the truth and 
use accurate language. 

"You hold in your hand a lump of coal about as 
large as a hen's egg." 

" You have in your hand a piece of a brick about 
four inches in length, four inches in breadth, and two 
inches in thickness." 

" You hold in your hand a glass jar containing one 
quart of clear water," etc., etc. 

The teacher may now place in the hands of the 
pupil a small slip of wood and tell him to do some- 
thing with it. The pupil will either break, cut or 
split it. The teacher will ask him to observe what he 
has done with it. The pupil will answer, " I have 
broken it." The teacher will so question the pupils 
as to draw out an answer similar to the following : 
" The wood may be separated into parts." 

Again, the teacher will request one of the pupils 
to take the hammer and do something with the coal. 
The pupil will break it, and he perceives that the 
coal may be broken into pieces. 

The teacher will so question the pupil as to draw 
out the following answer: "Coal may be separated 
into parts." So proceed with the brick, glass, stone, 
iron, etc., and lastly take the glass jar and put in it 
a few grains of cochineal, carmine or indigo, and let 
the pupils notic-e the effects. They will say that the 
cochineal is coloring the water ; let them see that the 



336 ELEMENT AB Y JSTATUBAL SCIENCE. 

cochineal is separated into thousands of parts ; lead 
them to say that cochineal " may be separated into 
parts. " The teacher should write all the facts on the 
Doard, and require the pupils to spell the words. See 
that the children begin every statement with a capi- 
tal letter and end it with a period. 

The lesson thus far developed will appear on the 
board in the following form : 

1. Wood may be separated into parts. 

2. Coal may be separated into parts. 

3. Glass may be separated into parts. 

4. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

Pupils should be required to copy the above neatly, 
and reproduce it. They should be lead to perceive 
that all objects may be separated into parts. At this 
stage ask them to give a general name to all things 
that they can perceive. They will give the names : 
things, objects, articles, substance, matter, — perhaps 
not the latter; if they do not give the name matter, 
the teacher should give it. Tell the pupils that 
" matter" is the term you wish them to use. " Now 
lead them to perceive that that " Matter may be sep- 
arated into parts." Now tell them that this properly 
is called by a certain term, Divisibility, and lead them 
to develop the definition from the knowledge already 
possessed. For example, that property of matter, 
which allows it to be separated into parts is Divisi- 
bility. 



LESSON ON DIYISIBLITY. 331 

The lesson will now appear on the board in the 
following form : 

1. Wood may be separated into parts. 

2. Coal may be separated into parts. 

3. Glass may be separated into parts. 

4. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

7. Musk may be separated into parts, etc. , etc. 
General Law — All matter may be separated into 

parts. 

Definition — Divisibility is that property of matter 
which allows it to be separated into parts. 

The pupils should memorize the General Law and 
Definition. The teacher may give extended informa- 
tion in relation to divisibility, speaking of a grain of 
musk, of the small portions it throws off, and of vap 
rious minerals. 



RECITATIONS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



As it is considered more important to digest what is 
learned than merely to acquire it, the manner of con- 
ducting a recitation becomes of the highest import- 
ance. It is to be expected that the pupils carry 
away with them the habits of mind that the class- 
training engenders. The ability of the teacher to 
make each recitation a model of the best method of 
investigating a subject and of expressing the results, 
is the highest recommendation for the position he 
holds. 

Discipline is only a means, whereas the recitation 
is an end. A failure here is a failure altogether. It 
has definite and rational aims to be carefully sought 
after and earnestly pursued. It is the most delicate 
part of all the school work. Here the teacher may 
exhibit skill, tact, and individuality ; the inventive 
powers are to be taxed to their utmost, in order to 
bring about the desired results. 

Main Object of tlie Recitation. 

The main object is to develop the powers of the 
pupils, and this development will be attained in 
proportion to the ability, capacity, and ingenuity of 
the teacher. 



METHODS IN BECITA TION. 339 

The conditions of success in school work are as 
fixed as the axioms of mathematics. Intense interest, 
activity, self-reliance, well-directed effort — these are 
the essential features of all efficient methods. Any 
method of conducting recitations that embraces 
these is a good oec. Different teachers do not always 
succeed best with the same method. 

Adaptation and variety are cardinal principles in 
education. The safe rule is: Employ the method which 
will best enable you to effect the desired results. 

How to Conduct a Recitation. 

I. Essentials. 

T. S€ drief reproduction of tlie prec&d^ 
ing lesson. 

g'. S^ drief review of tJie preceding Ies=' 
son, 

3. Rehearsal and critical examination 
of the daily lesson. 

4. Tlecapitulation of tJie daily lesson, 

5. S€dequate preparation for the ad^^ 
vanced lesson, 

II. Objects of the Kecitation. 
7. She development of the faculties, 
2. She acquisition of Tcnowledge. 
5. c^ts application to the use of life. 



340 RECITATIONS. 



III. Ends of the Recitations. 

/. S'o develop individuality. 

2. 3o encourage originality. 

3. So cultivate self=relia7ice and self= 
possession. 

4. So cultivate sentiments of justice, 
hindness^ fordearance and courtesy. 

5. Sfhat the development and the growth 
of the pupils J physically^ intellectually and 
morally^ may he carefully nurtured^ and 
dravely prepare them for lifers service. 

lY. Aims to he Attained in Conducting a Recitation, 

1. To teach "one thing at a time, and that well." 

2. To fix and hold the attention. 

3. To develop the power of close observation. 

4. To cultivate exact, concise, and ready expres- 
sion. 

5. To increase the attainments of the class. 

6. To determine the pupils' habits and methods of 
study, and to correct whatever is faulty either in 
manner or matter. 

7. To ascertain the extent of preparation on the 
part of the pupil. 

8. To encourage the work. This is important to 
prevent apostasy — "backsliding." 

9. To give preliminary drill on subsequent lessons, 



ENDS TO BE ATTAINED. 341 

showing wTiat is to be done and how it is to be done. 
This needs special attention. 

10. To hear reports on subjects assigned at pre- 
vious recitations. 

11. To require pupils to answer in full and com- 
plete propositions 

12. That no pupil should speak till recognized by 
the teacher — the chairman of the meeting. 

13. The pupil should rise when called upon to re- 
cite. 

14. The teacher is not expected to recite, nor repeat 
the pupils' answers. 

15. That system, neatness and accuracy should 
characterize all work. 

16. That criticism, given in the spirit of kindness, 
should be indulged at every recitation. 

17. That the recitation should cease when there is 
any confusion in the room. 

18. Aim to reach general principles. 

19. Kemember that in primary work the " how " 
always precedes the " why." 

20. Master subjects rather than pages. 

21. Remember that mind-training is more import- 
ant than mere knowledge. 

22. Avoid wandering; keep the object of the les- 
Bon before j'^ou. 

23. Avoid leaning in slaush dependence upon the 
text-book. 

24. Use judgment in the assignment of lessons. 

25. Propound questions promiscuously, 

26. State the question— then call upon the pupil. 



342 EECITATIONS. 



27. When the pupil is called upon to recite, permit 
no interruptions, as speaking without permission, 
holding up hands, etc. 

28. Cultivate honesty in every recitation. 

29. Never '* show off" pet classes or pet pupils. 

30. Do not talk too much about order. 

31. Cultivate language in the pupils ; let every ex- 
ercise bear upon the correct use of language. 

32. Close recitation promptly. 

33. Dismiss the class in order. 

34. Be cheerful, active and energetic. 

35. Thoroughly master j^onr subjects. 

36. '* Make haste si owl}'." 

37. Do not yourself remove difficulties, but teach 
pupils to overcome, to master them ; in all instruction 
*' never remove a difficulty which the pupil has the 
power to remove." 

38. Allow no questions foreign to the recitation to 
be asked. 

39. Allow no hesitation during recitation. 

40. Give entire time and attention to the recitation. 

41. Require expertness in mechanical operations. 

42. Comprehend the difference between memory 
of words, and knowledge. 

43. Comprehend the difference between *' hearing 
a recitation," and teaching. 

44. The skilful teacher will always prepare his 
class for any difficulty which may meet them in the 
advance lesson. He may explain the difficulty oral 
ly ; he may solve an example, not in the book, which 
shall meet the difficulty; he may give the class a pre- 



BEQUISITIES. 34a 



liminary drill oa the rule, or on a series of more dif- 
ficult examples under any rule, or in miscellaneous 
examples under a number of rules. Such prepara- 
tion, judiciously given, is calculated to keep up the 
ambition of all the class, by removing all excuses for 
laziness and discouragement. 

45. Remember that true education is the forming 
for life of correct habits of thinking^ feeling and doing. 

V. Requisites for the Recitation. 
/. fS4 live^ intelligent teacher. 

2. Recitation seats. 

3. S€n ahundance of dIacMoard. 

4. S4pparatus^ — such as gloles^ charts^ 
maps^ numerical ft^ame. measures, etc. 

5. Tleference doohs. 

6. "^all Ml. 

^. Proper ventilation. 
8. Squal temperature. 

VI. Pkeparation by the Teacher. 

/. general preparation^ always special 
if possihle. 

2. Should have a Tcnowledge of mental 
and moral philosophy. 

3. Should have an abstract of each day^s 
worh. 



344 HE CITATIONS. 



4. Should Tcnow liow to ^' use ^^ loolcs, 
l)ut not abuse tliem. 

Remarks on <• How to Conduct a Recita- 
tion." 

Meyvoduction. 

No permanent results can be attained in teaching 
without thoi'ough, careful and repeated reproduction 
of lessons. 

After a lesson has been given and recited by the 
pupils in the subsequent recitation, they should be 
required to restate what they learned in the preceding 
lesson, using good language and distinct and definite 
propositions. No questions should be asked by the 
teacher — and if the work has been done as it should be 
in the preceding exercise, there will be no need of any. 

In primary classes, require oral reproduction; in 
intermediate and senior classes, written reproduction. 
Reviews, 

In the review the teacher asks questions of the pu. 
pils, direct and general; pupils are required to con- 
struct tabulation on the board, and recite from the 
tabulations. It is well to let the pupils ask questions 
of each other — this will inspire the pupils with a de- 
sire for study and make them ready, prompt and self- 
reliant. 

The teacher should institute weekly reviews, both 

oral and written. 

Rehearsal. 

This is perhaps the most delicate part of the reci- 
tation. To so conduct it that pupils may pass a 



THE OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 345 

.thorough examination requires skill, judgment and 
experience. The teacher is not expected to render 
assistance in this division of the recitation; the pu- 
pils mu8t do the work, and give clear proof of their 
comprehension of the lesson. If they cannot do it, 
the teacher is in fault, and not the pupils. 

During this part of the recitation, the teacher 
should not take the time "to recite;" it is the pupils' 
time. That is a very poor teacher who will do the 
work that should b4 done by the pupil. 

Recapitulation. 

Before the class is excused, let thom give the lead- 
ing, salient points of the lesson — a summary — a di- 
gest of the whole. 

Give Preliminary Drill upon Subsequent 
Lessons* 

A great deal of time is lost in the school, because 
pupils do not know what to do or h/)w to do it In 
all primary classes oral instruction should precede 
pure recitation. In fact, in all classes, where it is 
necessary, oral instruction should be given. 

I would not be understood to say that the teacher 
must tell the child all he is to learn; he should use 
the rational oral method, and not the old, antiquated 
text-book method. 

Objects of the Recitation. 

The main object of an education is to teach a child 
self-control — physical, intellectual and moral. This 
can be done only through a harmonious development 
of all his powers. 



346 RECITATIONS. 



They should be so taught in school that they may 
have a desire to pursue other studies; able to acquire 
knowledge by observation, investigation and study. 
The knowledge imparted should be applied, as far as 
may be, to practice. 

General Remarks. 

In recitations, the expression of the thoughts which 
the pupil has acquired by study, should be embodied 
in his own language. 

If the lesson contains captions, mathematicaL defi- 
nitions, principles or tables, or fixed rules, they 
should be accurately recited in the words of the au- 
thor. The mind should be the depository of thoughts 
and not of mere words and signs. 

In the class-recitation the pupil should be required 
to stand erect w^hile reciting. This will give him 
confidence and self-reliance. 

It should not be known beforehand what order 
will be pursued in conducting the recitation. If 
called on constcutively, some will be inattentive; if 
called on promiscuously, the idle and inattentive will 
be called more frequently. 

Every teacher must see to it that each pupil is so 
classified as to be required to perform a full amount 
of mental labor. " Each mind must be taxed." It 
is the wise teacher who is able to adapt his treatment 
and instruction to the wants of each and all. 

Teachers are quite apt to call out the bright, intel- 
ligent pupils in the recitation; but let us remember 
that mere scholarship does not make the man; do 
not slight those who are dull, slow to understand. 



HONOR THOSE WHO LABOR, 347 

Our calculations may be entirely subverted; in ac- 
tive life he wins who is more industrious and labori- 
ous than his fellow-men. 

Honor those who Laboro 

It is not the one who bears away the highest hon- 
ors in the colleges, as a rule, that attains to the high- 
est positions in life. The world has reversed the 
decision, and awarded the merit and honor to him 
who has paved his w^ay to distinction and usefulness 
by toil and sweat and tears. 

Such are Nathaniel Bowditch, the mathematician; 
Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher ; George Pea- 
body, the philanthropist ; Abraham Lincoln, the 
fctatesman, and Ulysses S. Grant, the general. 

I would not intimate that scholarly ability is not 
desirable, but this is not always the test. Long and 
merited toil is the price of merited honor. He who 
has gained th£ highest marks of professional life has 
risen step by step, not by genius, but by labor. 
Make the Recitation Interesting. 

Another practical suggestion in this connection is : 
strive to make the recitation attractive and interest- 
ing. This requires thought and professional skill. 
The teacher should carefully study each lesson be- 
fore meeting the class, not merely to enable him to 
understand what he teaches, but to be able to so con- 
duct the recitation that he will awaken and keep alive 
the interest of his pupils. The grand test of the 
teacher's ability, and the secret of his success is found 
in his power to inspire his pupils with earnestness 
and enthusiasm. To wake up mind, is his first and 
most important duty. A true teacher is alive and in 



S48 



RECITATIONS. 



earnest; his heart throbs with tenderness and emo- 
lion; his blood flows fieely through his veins, and 
imparts cheerfulness and vigor to his whole being. 
Enthusiasm speaks out in his voice, glows in his 
countenance and flashes from his eye. We need in 
active service more of these live teachers; teachers 
that can bring order out of confusion, light out of 
darkness, and awaken to activit}^ the slumbering pow- 
ers of the iutclk'Ct. 

Our Country Needs Teachers. 

The country needs " teachers aud schools," not 
•'keepers of schools." The country needs men aud 
■women "to conduct rational recitations," not to hear 
classes. The country needs masters, aud mastery is 
attained onl}-- through voluntary aud persistent labor. 
Michael Angelo says: " Trifles make perfection, but 
perfection is no trifle." The teacher should be 
watchful, faithful and prayerful. Then, and not un- 
til then, will he attain success in teaching. 
Recitation. 

C 1. Rote., 

I memori- 

I. Text-ljooTc^ < ter. 



Metliods 

in 
TeacMng. 



< 



Oral. 



n. 

III. Socratic. 
TV. Topic or Subject y 
V. Discussion^ 
VI. Lecture, 



2. Ra- 
ti anal. 

1. Bote^ 

2. Ra- 
tional. 



UNTRAINED TEAGHEBS. 348 



The above methods are used in the schools, and 
many other ways not entitled to the name of method. 

The text book method is purely English, and by 
some it is a " much abused " method. 

When teachers simply require the pupils to com- 
mit a lesson to memory and recite it mechanically, 
this is an abuse of the method. The subject is one 
of unusual interest at the present time, for the reason 
that so much is said and written for and against the 
so-called " oral " and *' text-book "methods, respect- 
ively. While on *he one hand the text book method 
is stigmatized as a dead mechanical memorizing of 
the words in the book and then a parrot-like repeti- 
tion of the same to the teacher, who sits behind the 
desk and looks on the book to see that the lesson is 
given verbatim, on the other hand the oral system 
is acused of relieving the pupils from the necessity 
of study ; of throwing all the work upon the teacher. 

Untrained Teachers. 

No doubt there are legions of unskilful, untrained 
or negligent teachers in the country. I am inclined 
to think that they far outnumber the skilful and 
pains-taking ones — and it is hardly fair to judge of , 
the methods, when they misuse the position and the 
instruments placed in their hands so far as to make 
the text-book a procrustean bed and the recitation a 
benumbing process to the faculties of the child. 
The mere memorizing of the context is no index 
to the understanding of it. A school-mistress once 
said to a little girl : " How is it, my dear, that you do 
not understand this simple thing? " " I do not know, 



350 EXCITATIONS. 



indeed," she answered with a perplexed look; * but 
I sometimes think I have so mauy things to learn 
that I have no time to understand." 

It is not best to condemn a method that has been 
in use fcr hundreds ot years, because all cannot 
attain good results. But systems should not have 
their merits adjudged by their results in the hands of 
bunglers ; they should be compared in their results 
as achieved at the hands of those who have mastered 
the methods. A system is not responsible for the 
failures of those who do not follow out its principles. 

Grand results have been attained with the text^ 
book method, by adopting the rational method of 
recitation, — appealing to reason, to a pi'oper tinder- 
standing of Vie context before memorizing. The latter 
is preferred by all rational teachers. 
Oral 3Iethod. 

The method is purely German, and like the text- 
book method has its friends and foes. In some 
schools the teachers lecture before the children, and 
require them to reproduce the exact language of the 
lecture. In this case it is as much a rote or memor- 
iter exercise as the text-book method. 

In other schools, the teachers ask suggestive ques- 
tions, — they excite the pupils' curiosity, awaken the 
mind and easily hold the attention. The pupils do 
the work, and infer the answers through their powers 
of perception. This is real education. This is the 
rational oral method. 

The advantage of class-recitation may be found in 
both oral and text-book methods, chiefly, I think, in 



ORAL VS. TEXT-BOOK TE AC BIN a. 35i 

the latter. "We believe in a combination of the two 
methods. We, in America, can neither use the text- 
book method, which in English, nor the oral method, 
which is German. We need to Americanize them, 
and our best teachers, already, are in the advance 
and working out grand results. 

Oral and. Text-Book Methods Compared. 

The American method is the philosophical combi- 
nation of both, — uniting the merits and rejecting f^e 
faults. Oral methods predominate properly in 
American primary schools ; text-book methods in 
secondary schools and colleges ; and we return again 
to oral methods, or lectures, in the professional 
schools. The true place for oral methods is in pre- 
paratory work. Oral instruction should lead to and 
prepare for the text-book. 

The best work in American schools is found in a 
judicious combination of both methods. Oral in- 
struction alone, if carried through a course of instruc- 
tion, even if teachers are prepared to give it, is not 
the best method. It should lead to a mastery of 
other thoughts than those on the printed page. The 
most effective teaching uses both the oral and text- 
book methods. If used properly, oral teaching will 
teach the pupils how to investigate. Oral instruc- 
tion, in its results, is of the highest importance to 
American citizenship. Young children have few 
ideas, for they have heard little, read little, and their 
observation has not been developed. 

Oral instruction takes a more 'permanent hold of 
the mind than memorizing from books. It affords 



353 EECITATIOJSfS. 



the learner an opportunity to ask questions as the 
lesson proceeds, and gives the teacher the entire con- 
trol of the youthful minds that lie fallow before 
him. It opens also a field for enthusiasm in teach- 
ing and learning, where everything with some teach- 
ers is mere drudgery. It would give life where there 
is nothing now but worn and worthless machinery 
in our public schools. 

Children are too often made to commit to memory 
names and dates and rules, without a proper under- 
standing of them. The text-book becomes the real 
instructor, and not the living man or woman who 
should impart instruction. 

"We would not discard the text-books entirely, 
neither would we exclude them. 

The proper place for oral instruction is in the 
primary department ; and in other classes the oral 
instruction should be of such a character as to 
simply prepare the pupils for studi/, so that no time 
may be wasted. 

Pupils should be made to study their text-books ; 
learn short lessons ; be asked by the teachers not 
only the questions in the books, but others that will 
test their knowledge and awaken their interest. 

Some pupils lean, readily from' their text-books, 
and get along with a little explanation. Some are 
more dull and need the stimulus of recitation, of 
questions and answers, and of illustrations. 

The Socratic Method. 

By skilful questioning the pupii is led to discover 
the truth, and trained to think. Sabiects are devel 



TOPICAL TEACEING. 353 

oped from the standpoint of the learner. The teacher 
stimulates and directs, but never crams. Pupils are 
encouraged to present their own thoughts. If cor- 
rect, the teacher deepens and widens these views by 
suggestive illustrations. If incorrect, the absurdity 
is shown by leading the pupils to discover the legiti- 
mate consequences. Thus the burden of thought 
and research is thrown upon the learner, who, at 
every step, feels the joy of discovery and victory, 
and the conscious pleasure of assisting the teacher. 
Such teaching results in development, growth and 
education. " The exercise of the child's own powers, 
stimulated and directed, but not superseded, by the 
teacher's interference, ends both in the acquisition of 
knowledge and in the invigoration of the powers for 
future acquisition." 

This old, old method is slowly but irresistably 
tending to become universal. Mere school keepers, 
rote teachers, quacks, shams and fossils will never 
adopt this plan of teaching ; but as teachers become 
familiar with the science of teaching, they will neces- 
sarily use the Socratic method of giving instruction. 
It is the natural method. 

The Topical Method. 

In this method the pupils are trained to tell conse- 
cutively their own thoughts. 

The art of connected discourse is essential ; hence 
by our best teachers the topical method is made the 
basis of the recitation. This should be required of 
every class in school, whenever the subject will 
admit of it. No other method can so easily secure 



354 RECITATIONS. 



the results to be accomplished. Pointed, searching 
questions are asked whenever necessary, and instruc- 
tion is given in the Socratic method. At any moment 
any member of the class is liable to be called on to 
explain a dificulty, to answer a question, or to con- 
tinue the topic. Thus life, vigor, undivided atten- 
tion, and effective individual effort are secured and 
maintained throughout the recitation. 

Prompting, in all its forms, is inartistic and per- 
nicious. The aim is to train the pupils to habits of 
independent expression, as well as independent thought. 
The exclusive use of the topic method is an extreme 
to be studiously avoided, as it excludes instruction 
and fails to elicit the intense interest and the earnest 
effort of every member of the class. It should have 
a limited use in the primary department, more ex- 
tended in the intermediate and senior departments. 
In the primary classes, the terms may be developed 
individually, and written on the board ; thus forming 
a complete tabulation and classification. 

The pupils should be required to review the terms 
written on the board, without any assistance from 
the teacher. 

In intermediate and senior classes, the pupils 
should be taught to tabulate and classify, and recite 
from the tabulation. 

The Discussion Method. 

Briefly and pointedly pupils present their argu- 
ments in favor of their respective positions. Crit- 
icisms are urged and answered. Every point is 
sharply contested. The reasons for and against are 
carefully weighed. 



TEACHING BY LECTTTRES. 355 

Educationally the discussion method stands high. 
It is like the interest excited in debate ; in these 
mental conflicts, the utmost power of the pupil is put 
forth. 

There is no better way to cultivate independence, 
self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an 
opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion 
method supplements the Socratic and topic methods. 
It breaks up monotony, dissipates stupidness and 
insipidity. 

From the primary school to the university this 
method may be used to incalculable advantage; but 
in all cases it must be kept well under the control 
and direction of the teacher. 

Perhaps there is no method that will excite gr-eater 
interest than this rational method. There is less ex- 
amining, less artificial training and more solid devel- 
opment. The discussion method is pre-eminently 
the method to make thinking men and thinking 

women. 

The Lecture Method. 

Lecturing is another method of instruction which 
has its uses and abuses. A lecture by the teacher 
should never be substituted tor a recitation by the 
class. Many teachers suppose that the measure of 
their ability as instructors is the power they have to 
explain and illustrate before their classes ; and hence 
spend the most of the time assigned to recitation 
in the display of their own gifts of speech. But in 
the recitation room the good teacher has but little to 
say. His ability is tested more by his silence than by 



a56 BECITATIONS. 



his loquacity ; by his power to arouse and dh'ect the 
activity of his pupils, more than by his own actions. 
In professional schools and in the advanced classes 
in colleges, the time for recitation is largely spent in 
this way. The lecturer outlines the subject, suggests 
the fields of research, indicates the line of thought, 
gives much information and stimulates the pupils to 
effort. It the student, by long continued efibrt makes 
the lecture his own, great will be the results. 

But nowhere in this country has the lecture method 
alone given entire satisfaction. It has been found 
necessary to institute oral and written examinations 
in order to make it effective. 

The conversational lecture gives results. The 
class by skilful questions are led into rich fields of 
iliought. Topics are discussed by the teacher and 
the pupils. Questions are asked that produce thought; 
ixperimeuls are performod that elicit attention; pu- 
pils are led to draw inferences from what they per- 
ceive. This method was admirably used by the wise 
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. From these great 
masters modern teachers may learn important 
lessons. 

The lecture method is utterly out of place in the 
primary classes. Wherever it has been used it proves 
a failure. 

Whenever a teacher gives a lecture to his pupils, 
he should require them to take notes, and recite after 
every formal lecture. It is well for the teacher to 
write on the board a tabulated classification, and VGr 
quire the pupils to copy. 



LAWS OF QTIESTIOKimh 357 



General Kemarks* 

Whatever method the teacher may follow, oj^je 
end should be attained ; the best possible develop- 
ment of true manhood and womanhood. The inquiry 
may rise, what is the end of study, recitation 
and instruction? 

Nut the attainment of knowledge, but discipline — 
powEK. It is undoubtedly a fact that " secular educa- 
tion will make a good man better, but a bad man 
worse." 

Education, then, is not the storing of knowledge, 
but the development of power ; and the law of de- 
velopment is thorough exercise. 

Any system of education, therefore, which weakens 
the motive, or removes the necessity of laborious 
thinking is false in theory and ruin/ms in practice. 

There is only one way to acquire knowledge, and 
that way is through study — the voluntary and con- 
tinual application of the mind to a subject. 

Laws of Questioniiig* 

1. Questions should be clear and concise. 

2. Questions should be to the point. 

3 Questions should be adapted to the capacity. 

4. Questions should be logical. 

5. Questions should not be ambiguous. 

6. Avoid questions that give a choice between two 
answers. 

7. Avoid direct questions. 

8. Avoid set questions. 

9. Avoid general questions. 



358 RECITATIONS. 



10. Avoid questions that simply exercise the 
faculty of memory. 

Object of Questions. 

1. To find out what the pupils know. 

2. To ascertain what they need to know- 

3. To awaken curiosity. 

4. To arouse the mind to action. 

5. To illustrate; to explain,— when necessary. 

6. To impart knowledge not found in the text- 
book. 

7. To fix knowledge in the mind. 

8. To secure thoroughness. 

Cautions to be Observed in Questioning. 

1. Ask questions only once. 

2. Vary the questions. 

3. Begin the exercise with an easy question, 

4. Let your questions be connected. 

5. When a question is asked, do not suggest the 
first words of the answer. 

6. Enunciate every question with distinctness. 

7. Anticipate answers ; arrange suggestive ques- 
tions. 

8. Never neglect or ridicule an answer. 

9. " Never tell a child what you could make that 
child tell you." 

10. Question the lesson into the minds of the 
pupils, and question it out again. 

11. Lead the pupil by a pleasant question to dis- 
cover his own mistake, instead of directly charging 
him with it. 



FIRST PJtINGlPLES. 859 

Maxims, or First Principles. 

I. " The idea should go before the word which 
expresses it — or, in other words, a clear and dis- 
tifict conception of an object should be impressed 
upon the mind, before the name or term which 
expresses it be committed to memory ^ 

II. " In the process of instruction, nothing {if 
possible^ should be assigned to the young merely 
as a task." 

III. " Everything that is cheerful and exhilar- 
ating to the young should be associated with the 
business of edncation." 

IV. " In the practice of teaching, the pri?iciple 
of emulation should be discarded." 

V. " Corporal punishment should be seldom or 
never inflicted — aftd when it is determined upon 
as the last resort, it should be inflicted with calm- 
ness and aff^ection." 

VI. " Children should not be lofig confined in 
school — and never any longer than they are actu- 
ally employed in it." 

VII. " Young people should always be treated 
as rational creatures, a7id their opinion occasion- 
ally solicited as to certain points and scholastic 
arrangements y 

VIII. " Reproof should always be tendered 
with the utmost confidence and fftildness." 



360 BECITATIOJSIS. 

IX. " One great object of education skoald be 
to fix the attention on the subjects we wish to ex- 
plain and elucidated 

Remarks. 

A principle of teaching is a law based upon the 
condition of the minds of those to be taught. 

Very meagre will be the results of those teachers 
who instruct regardless of principles. There may 
be apparent advancement, but there will be no real 
progress. 

If the first principle were uniformly introduced 
into education it would overturn almost every system 
of instruction which has hitherto prevailed. We may 
ask in the name of all that is wise, what is gained if 
we stock and overburden the memories of children 
with a medley of words to which no correct ideas 
are attached? A child may repeat hundreds of verses 
and yet be entirely ignorant of the meaning of 
almost every proposition. In the original formation 
of language, the objects of nature must first have 
been observed and known, before words or signs 
were fixed upon to distinguish them ; the children 
should be made to feel a desire for terms to express 
their ideas ; and, in this case, the ideas and the 
words which express them will afterwards be insep- 
arably connected. 

Pains should be taken to carry out the intent of 
the second principle. The teacher cannot be too 
careful not to disgust at the first process of learning. 
Frequently revengeful feelings are excited by re- 



MAKE STUDY PLEXsANT. 361 

quiring children to remain after school hours, and 
commit lines of poetry to memory, or perform some 
menial duty. 

Teachers are sometimes at fault for unlearned les- 
sons on the part of pupils, because they have not 
told the children what to do or how to do it. If the 
young understand the nature and object^ of their 
worli, and the manner in which it should be prose- 
cuted, they will find a pleasure in endeavoring to 
surmount every apparent difficulty. The work should 
be represented both as a duty and a pleasure. 

It will give pleasure both to teacher and pupils to 
practise the import of the third principle. 

A smile from the teacher lightens the labor of the 
school, and lessens the burdens of the day. 

School rooms should be spacious, light and airy, — 
well ventilated, comfortably heated during winter 
and erected in delightful and commanding situations. 
The walls should be adorned with pictures, mottoes, 
vines and ornaments. 

The school-room should be made as homelike as 
possible, as inviting as public halls. Teachers should 
frequently exhibit amusing and instructive exper- 
iments, and ask the children to assist them. The 
children should be gratified occasionally with excur- 
sions into interesting parts of the country, to view 
the works of nature and thus increase their love of 
the beautiful. Everything should be so conducted 
that all their scholastic exercises may be connected 
with delightful associations. 

In the practice of the fourth principle, we believe 



8fi2 RECITATIONS. 



that the principle of emulation should be discarded. 
Many teachers have asserted that they could not con- 
duct education without the aid of this principle. We 
believe that commedation for improvement needs 
to be practised much more frequently than reproof 
for deficiency. 

It is better to cultivate a love of knowledge for its 
own sake, that is for the pleasure it imparts and also 
for the sake of the increased good it will enable us 
to do for ourselves and for our fellow-beings. 

By appeals to parental authority and influence ; by 
efforts to form correct public sentiment in schools, 
so that it shall be unpopular to do wrong ; by culti- 
vating in the pupils a sense of obligation to God, of 
his constant inspection, and of his interest in all their 
concerns, the children may be stimulated to do right. 

We believe that to encourage pupils to do right is 
the safest way ; not always the easiest, but the best. 

In an intellectual point of view emulation may be 
satisfactory to the few that excel ; satisfactory to 
parents and guardians, who are led to form false 
estimates of their progress and acquirements by the 
places they occupy in their respective classes ; but 
it almost uniformly produces an injurious effect on 
the moral temperament of the young and on their 
companions whom they excel. 

One grand end of instruction, which has been too 
much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the 
moral powers, — to produce love, affection, concord, 
humility, self-denial and other moral graces. But 
the principle of emulation has a tendency to produce 



COBPOBAL PUNISHMENT. 36S 

jealous5% envy, hatred and other malignant passions. 
Besides it is only a very few in every class that can 
be stimulated to exertion by this principle, and these 
few are generally of such a temperament as to require 
their ambitious disposition to be restrained, rather 
than excited. A material prize is the least efifectual 
mode of accomplishing the desired object; it is found- 
ed on injustice, inasmuch as it heaps honors and em- 
oluments on those to whom nature has already been 
most bountiful. 

In the curiosity of children, there is sufficient and 
natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and 
we live in a world abounding in the means of useful 
and pleasurable gratifications. 

All that is required of teachers is to aid the facul- 
ties with affection and judgment. A certificate of 
diligence and good conduct seems to be all that is 
necessary to distinguish from the vicious, the idle, 
the slothful, those who have employed their time and 
talents in a proper manner. 

In the fifth principle, which says : " Corporal pun- 
ishment should be seldom or never inflicted," etc., is 
one of the unsolved problems of the day. Whether 
we have a healthier form of discipline in our Amer- 
ican families and schools, can only be answered cor- 
rectly by the wise fathers and mothers who have 
passed their four score years. We can but believe 
that corporal punishment, as it is generally adminis- 
tered, is something revolting and degrading in its 
character, and the necessity of resorting to it gener- 
ally indicates that there has been a want of proper 



364 RE CI TA TIONS. 



training in the earlier stages of life. It is vain to 
imagine that children can be whipped into either 
learning or religion ; and if an enlightened and 
judicious mode of tuition were universally adopted 
there would seldom be any necessity for resorting to 
such a stimulus But in the modes of teaching which 
now generally prevail, corporal punishment is almost 
inevitable. 

Corporal punishment, rudeness, ridicule and re- 
proach are altogether incompatible with a system of 
moral and intellectual instruction which is calculated 
to allure the minds of the young. 

Corporal punishment has generally a hardening 
effect on the minds both of young and old. 

A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was 
very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was 
nevertheless an audacious dog. One day the old 
vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which 
he had made of foreign steel, but could not succeed. 
*' Horse-whip it, father," exclaimed the youth, '*if 
that will not harden it, nothing will." 

Little need be said on the sixth principle ; but all 
will agree that a school ought never to serve the pur- 
poses of a prison. If the primary classes are incapa- 
ble of preparing the lessons themselves, chey should 
be provided with slates and pencils and taught how 
to draw, to write and make figures. In mild weather 
they should have frequent recesses, and be called in 
when their lessons are to be explained. 

The seventh principle, if fully practised, will aid 
materially in school government. The reasons for 



LAWS OF TEACHING. 365 

the treatment they receive, and for the exercises pre- 
scribed, in so far as they are able to appreciate them, 
should be stated occasionally, and explained and 
illustrated. 

The eighth principle is one of the most important 
ones. Plato said, "a teacher should never punish in 
anger." When reproofs are uttered in passion, and 
with looks of fury, they seldom or never produce 
any good effect, and not un frequently excite a spirit 
of revenge against the reprover. 

The ninth and last principle should be put in 
practice by teachers. But few seem to do it. 

The habit of attending to what one reads and what 
one hears is a most important habit. 

In order to fix the attention, we must " continually 
think about it," study the subject, and get the powers 
under control. Pupils should be taught to investigate^ 
to study ^ to thinkj to notice every object within the 
reach of their vision, and to give an account of what 
they have seen or heard. 

All of these circumstances have a tendency to 
induce a habit of attention, without which there can 
be no solid improvement in any department of 
instruction. The teacher should not proceed with 
the exercises of the school without the undivided 
attention of every pupil. It is the imperative duty 
of the pupils to attend, provided the teacher is 
capable of instructing them. 

Laws of Teaching. 

1. Know thoroughly and familiarly whatever you 
attempt to teach. 



366 EEGITATIONS. 



2. Gain and keep the attention of your pupils, and 
excite their interest in the subject. 

3. Use language which your pupils fully under- 
stand, and clearly explain every new word required. 

4. Begin with what is already known, and proceed 
to the unknown by easy and natural steps. 

5. Excite the self-activity of the pupils, and lead 
them to discover the truth for themselves. 

6. Require pupils to re-state fully and correctly in 
their own language, and with their own illustrations, 
the truth taught them. 

7. Review, review, review, — carefully, thoroughly 
and repeatedly. 

Note. — These laws underlie and control all suc- 
cessful teaching. Nothing need be added to them; 
nothing can be safely taken away. 

Principles of Teaching. 

1. " Teach objects before names." 

2. " Teach ideas before words." 

3. " Teach thoughts before sentences." 

4. " Knowledge before definitions." 

5. " Proceed from the known to the unknown." 

6. " Proceed from the coucret to the abstract." 

7. " Proceed from the simple to the complex." 

8. " Proceed from the particular to the general." 

9. *' Proceed from rudiments to principles." 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

1 Show the necessity of a subject before you begin 
to teach it. 

2. Require one subject to be understood, before 
taking up another. 



SUGGESTIONS. 367 



3. Require everything that is taught, to be repro- 
duced by tlie pupils. 

4. Always take up subjects in their logical order. 

5. That which is attempted should be thoroughly 
mastered. 

6. Remember that all the powers are developed by 
being judiciously and vigorously exercised. 

7. Remember that knowledge is of little value 
unless it can be utilized. 

8. Remember that a lesson is not given until it has 
been received. 

Saggestions to Young Teachers. 

1. Make weekly or bi-weekly inspections of all 
books held by the pupils, holding each responsible 
for the right use of the same. This will prevent 
much mutilation and destruction of books. 

2. In the class-room, teachers should not confine 
the attention of the pupils exclusively to what is 
found in the books. " Books are but helps," or in- 
struments; and while that which is contained in 
them should be judiciously used and thoroughly 
understood, yet, so far as time will permit, the teacl^er 
can, to advantage, introduce such matters as are not 
only valuable in themselves, but such as will tend to 
impress the subject of the lesson more firmly upon 
the mind. 

3. Be judicious and sparing in awarding credit or 
discredit marks ; to be lavish, would render them 
cheap and comparatively valueless. 

4. Before reproving delinquents in recitation, first 
inquire whether or not they have studied, and, if so, 



368 BECITATIONS. 

•what effort has been made. Some pupils may devote 
touch time and labor to the acquirement of their 
lessons, and yet in the class-room be weak in recita- 
tion ; and to denounce such would tend to dis- 
courage rather than stimulate. 

5. During a recitation, the attention of all should 
be eugaged upon the lesson or subject under con- 
sideration 

6. When a pupil applies for assistance in any 
question, do not accomplish the whole yourself, 
neither send him away entirely unaided; but after 
he has studied the subject faithfully, present to him 
one or two of the leading principles involved, and 
then leave him to develop the matter himself. Too 
much aid is sometimes worse than too little. 

7. Teachers should, before entering on their duties 
for the day, be thoroughly conversant with the sub- 
ject of each lesson. A teacher, while conducting a 
recitation, should never be obliged to refer to the book 
or map for the purpose of ascertaining whether or 
not the pupil is correct in his answer. Besides dis- 
playing a weakness on the part of the teacher, there 
arises in the mind of the pupil the query— why 
should I study what my teacher does not know? 

The teacher should be first well acquainted with 
the true answer to every question, and the correct 
pronunciation of eyery word in the several lessons. 
It will be seen that many advantages attend this plan; 
the chief ot which are — much time is saved, the 
teacher instructs with more facility and success, and 
the pupil, observing the familiarity of the teacher 



SUGGESTIOIfS. 369 

with the several subjects, leels for him a greater re- 
spect 

8. In hearing a lesson give the pupil time to answer 
when it appears he has a correct idea, and merely 
hesitates to find words to express-himself ; but when 
it is evident that he is ignorant of the answer, wait- 
ing is bnt a loss of time. 

9. Be sure the pupils have gained ideas. Words, 
without ideas, clog the mind. 

10. A teacher taking charge of a new class, should 
at first advance it beyond the farthest point it had 
previously attained in each study. In case the 
teacher finds the new class deficient in what has been 
passed over, he should not turn back until about two 
weeks have elapsed, when all necessary reviews may 
be made. When a class passes under the control of 
another teacher, a sudden retrograde movetnent 
would produce discontent in the class. At the same 
time, the teacher should avoid allusion tending to 
disparage the course of his predecessor in the estima- 
tion of the class. 

11. The hearing of lessons should not occupy more 
than one hour and a half daily ; the remainder of the 
day being devoted to actual teaching, when the 
lessons for the following day may be explained by 
the teacher. In Grammar Schools, answering in 
CONCERT should be abolished 

12. Whenever practicable, teach by means of ob- 
jects, or through the medium of the eye ; in Geo- 
giaphy, use globes and maps; in Astronomy, use 
orrery, globes and diagrams ; in Spelling, frequently 



i70 BEGITATIONS. 



require the pupils to write the words or sentences 
given. 

13. If you would have no drones in your school, 
talk at each recitation to the dullest in your class, 
and use all your ingenuity in endeavoring to make 
him comprehend. The others, then, will be sure to 
understand. 

14. Make each exercise as attractive as possible. 
Think out your methods beforehand, and illustrate 
freely. 

15. Cultivate self-control ; never be led into con- 
fusion, and above all be in earnest. 

16. Be cheerful and smile often. A teacher with 
a long face casts a gloom over everj'^thing, and event- 
ually chills young minds and closes young hearts. 

17. Use simple language when you explain lessons. 
Long words are thrown away in the school-room. 

IS. Thoroughly test each pupil on the lesson, and 
do not be afraid of repetition. Review every day, 
or much will be lost. 

19. Do not try to teach too much ; better teach a 
little and teach it well. 

20. Endeavor to make your pupils understand the 
meaning of what they study. Probe the matter to 
the bottom, and get at the real knowledge of your 
scholars. 

21. Cultivate the understanding, and do not appeal 
directly to the memory. 

22. Lay the foundation of knowledge firmly and 
well. 

23. Impart right principles and lead your pupils 



PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING, 371 

to a higher level, to a nobler' range of thought. 
Endeavor to accomplish all that skill, intelligence 
and love can suggest. 

What now you do, you know not, 

Eut shall hereafter know, 
When the seed which you are sowing, 

To a whitened field shall grow. 

'Tis a rich young soil you're tilling. 
Then scatter the good seeds well ; 

Of the wealth of the golden harvest 
Eternity will tell. 

24. Teach your pupils to fight manfully in the 
warfare of good against evil, truth against error ; and 
above all, let the eternal principles of right and 
wrong govern your own life, and form a part of 
your own character. If you do this, you will " sow 
beside all waters, and eventually bring home your 
sheaves rejoicing." 

Principles ol Teaching* 

1. Teach and train the eye to perceive correctly. 

2. Teach and train the ear to understand correctly. 

3. Teach and train the hand to execute correctly. 

4. Teach and train the tongue to speak correctly. 

5. Teach and train the pupils to reproduce cor- 
rectly. 

6. '* Begin at the beginning." 

7. " Follow a natural order." 

8. " Classify knowledge." 

9. •' Master principles." 



DISCIPLIMRY EXERCISES. 



INTRODUCTION. 



An experience of several years enables the author 
to assert that disciplinary and calisthenic exercises 
are best for maintaining the discipline of schools ; 
they invigorate the body, improve the carriage and 
impart habits of punctuality, quickness, courtesy 
and obedience. 

The pupils almost invariably delight in them ; the 
exercises of the drill give them physical vigor and 
alacrity ; they learn insensibly and in a pleasurable 
v^ay the need of mfiiant and cheerful obedience. In 
this chapter we intend to explain the manner of con- 
ducting such exercises. 

We shall use the plainest and simplest terms, with 
less reference to the taste of the critic than to the 
convenience and profit of the pupil. 

A large proportion Of our teachers are young and 
inexperienced. They are earnest and energetic ; 
they are desirous of learning how to accomplish their 
duties fully and pleasantly ; and they are thankful 
for any instruction in means and method. These 
exercises are offered as suitable to be joined to labor^ 
or thrown around it in disguise. It is hoped that the 



DI8GIPLIWABT COMMANDS. 



373 



instruction here given will be sufficiently plain to 
enable every teacher to put it into practice. 

Much depends upon presenting the subject prop- 
erly to the pupils. It will not do to force the matter 
upon them, nor even let it seem too much your own 
plan. Start it quietly, and tell them the use of the 
exercise, and they will urge you to drill them. The 
exercise is one in which all may take part, and they 
will soon be convinced of the merits of the plan. 

In preparation for your first, and for every drill, you 
must have thoroughly studied and practised every 
movement which you are to teach. 

In demeanor be energetic, prompt and decided ; 
use no waste words, and err, if at all, on the side of 
severity, rather than of familiarity. 

Directions. 

Disciplinary Commands. 

A. The Word of Caution. B. The Word of Execution. 

1. Side by side, 
3. Face Front, 

3. Not too close, 

4. Form on the right, 

5. Head to the right, 

6. Arms by the side, 

7. Fingers extended, 
^7. No talking &c. 



I. Pupils. . ..Form the Line !- 



II. Pupils Attention ! ^ 



''1. Face to the Front, 
2. Chin close to neck 

3. cnest ftrawn forward, 

4. Heels together, 

5. Eyes to the Front, 
^ 6. Body erect. 



374 BISGIPLINART EXERCISES. 

III. Head j Eyes Eight.— Front. 

Movement. \ Eyes Left. — Front. 

IV. Body] J- ?i??* ^^^^' 

Movement ) ^- ^^^^ ^^^^' 

movement, j 3 ^^^^^. ^^^^ 

{1. Mark time March, 
2. Forward March, 
3. File right March, 
4. File left March. 

YI. Halt. 

Cautions 1. Require perfect silence, 

2. Do not talk too much, 

3. After giving a command, wait until 

it is executed. 

4. Explain each new position, before 

execution. 

5. Take up one movement at a time, 

6. Keep exact step, 

7. Keep steady time, 

8. Persevere. 

Pupils, form the Line I 

The command, "Pupils, form the Line!" I will 
explain : It means, make a line, side by side, facing 
one way ; not too close to each other; without 
crowding ; as you come up, do not crowd in at the 
centre of the line, but seek a place at the left ; (allow 
no talking, laughing, or even smiling.) Let your 
arms hang naturally at your sides, the fingers ex- 
tended, palms of the hands turned in and the elbows 
touching each other lightly. Turn your head to the 



WOBDS OF COMMAND. 375 

right, (not your shoulders,) and look along the line 
to see if you are not too far forward or behind. If 
forward, fall back ; if behind, come forward. 

The teacher should take pains with each one to 
see that he now obeys the directions in every one 
of these particulars. Give praise and encourage- 
ment when deserved. 

Pupils, Attention / 

At this command, you will think over every par- 
ticular : the position of the head, eyes, chest, arms 
and feet. You will remain in a perfect and quiet 
position until another command is given to you— 
*' Dismissed /^^ 

Eyes, Bight! 

The word of caution is, *' eyes." You are warned 
by that word that something is to be done with eyes. 
You are to do nothing until you have the word of 
execution, which is, " Right.'* As soon as you hear 
that, you are to remain in this position until you 
hear the command, " Front ! " when you are to re- 
sume the first position, Now, we will give you a 
trial—" Eyes— Right ! " " Eyes— Left ! " 

Let there be a careful drill and a review of all the 
commands. Never forget that "Front'' must fol- 
low each command. 

Bight, Face ! 

This movement is performed by throwing the weight 
of the body on the left foot, making the heel of that 
foot the pivot on which the body turns, the right foot 
being raised very slightly and brought around while 
turning to the right position. In turning, be careful 



376 DISGIPLINART EXERCISES. 

not to sway the body or bend the knees. Do not 

move with a jerk. 

Ahout^ Face! 

At the word "about," the position of the "rest" 
is assumed with the feet ; at the word " face," turn 
on the left heel completely around, bringing the 
right foot to the side of the left ; to make the move- 
ment tell^ so that the executions of the order may be 
simultaneous, it will be well to require a stamp of 
the right foot as it is brought back, at the word 
"about." Do not go on to order "face" until 
" about" is well learned. This is a difficult motion. 
Be patient ; spend much time on it. 

The " left, face ! " is done in the same way, except 
that the head is turned to the left. 

It would be well to arrange the pupils according 

to height, as this will add to their appearance. The 

"facings" are rather difficult, yet very important 

movements. 

Marching Hovemente 

Mark Time^ March! 

At the word of caution, the weight of the body 
rests upon the right foot ; the left foot is held ready 
to take a step. At the word " March," the left foot 
is thrown forward, as if to advance, and brought 
back to place : the right foot follows in the same way. 

There is no advancing, and care must be taken to 

bring the feet back into their tracks, or the line will 

be broken. 

Forward^ March! 

"While marking time, give "forward, march,* 



WOUDS OF COMMAND. 377 

takmg care to pronounce the word ' ' march " as tha 
right foot strikes the floor. 

Marching, either from marking time or from a halt, 
must be by *' the left foot first.'* 

Halt/ 
The command, " halt," stops them. The word 
"halt" must always be given just as either foot 
strikes the ground. 

Sestf 

"Eest" is performed by bringing the hands to- 
gether, the left crossed over the right ; arms at full 
length ; left foot brought at right angles with the line; 
right foot thrown back, the bottom three inches in 
the rear of the beel of the left foot and parallel with 
the line ; weight of the body on the right foot. 

If any one find himself getting behind, he must 
take longer steps. " Lengthen the pace but never 
lose the time." While marching by file, if you wish 
to turn to the right or left, command, '* File — Right !" 
or*' File— Left!" 

This order is obeyed by the file-leader, and the 
rest follow him. The pupils must remember to 
preserve while marching the exact fronting distance, 
sixteen inches. 

In marching, watch every movement and see that 
the pupils are in perfect order. When the command 
" Halt ! " is given, require the pupils to stop instantly. 

Proper Space. 

In marching, let there be a space of about sixteen 
Inches between the pupils. Insist that the body shal] 



378 " DISCIP LIN AHY EXERCISES. 

not be allowed to sway about while marking time ; 
that the head shall be kept erect ; that the eyes be 
directed to the front, striking the floor or ground 
twelve paces off; and that the arms and hands be 
held correctly. 

One Movement at a Tiine. 

Teach one movement a day, and in a few days 

your pupils will be familiar with all the movements. 

They should be drilled upon these movements before 

taking up Calisthenics. The discipline of the school 

will be very much easier if the teacher will introduce 

a system ; two or three minutes practice each day 

will insure success, and add to the happiness of the 

pupils. 

Calisthenics. 

A systematic drill of a few minutes each day will 
relieve the monotony of school-room routine. 

Children in the primary classes become very 
weary ; " activity is a law of childhood — inactivity 
is the symbol of death, if not death itself." The 
pupils will take interest in the exercise and beneficial 
results will be attained. It will improve the pupils 
in their walk, giving a lighter step, producing grace 
and symmetry in all their movements. It will give 
vigor, and tone up pupils to increased effort in 
study 



CALISTHENICS. 



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380 



DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 



I. Chest Exercise. 

Command — Chest Exercise — Position — Play ! 

Command. — At the word of command the pupils 
should, in this and in the following exercises, take 
the positions promptly, with decision, and in perfect 
time. 

Position. — Stand erect, with heels together, and ou 
the same line ; toes turned equally out, and forming 
with each other an angle of 60^* ; knees straight, with- 
out stiffness ; shoulders square and falling equally ; 
arms hanging naturally by the side, with elbows near 
the body ; hands firmly closed ; head well set, and 
eyes directly to the front. 



1st Movement. ■{ 



'1. Right hand on chest. 

2. Left-hand on chest. 

3. Right arm extended horizontally 

in front, four times. 

4. Left arm extended horizontally 
in front, four times. 

5. Alternate ; right arm, return ; left 

arm, return ; two times. 
Simultaneous, both arm's, four 
times. 



8. Movement. 



1. Right hand on chest. 

3. Left hand on chest. 

3. Right arm perpendicularly down- 
, ward, four times. 

'i 4. Left arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

5. Alternate. 

6. Simultaneous. 



CAZISTEENIG8. 



381 



3d Movement. - 



' 1. Right hand on chest. 

2. Left hand on chest. 

3. Right arm extended horizontally 
to the right, four times. 

4 Left arm extended horizontally 
to the left, four times. 

5. Alternate. 

6. Simultaneous. 



II. Arm-pit Exercise. 

Command— Arm-pit Exercise— Position— Play ! 



1st Movement. ■< 



Right hand at arm-pit. 

Left hand at arm-pit. 

Right arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

Left arm perpendicularly down- 
ward, four times. 

Alternate. 

Simultaneous. 



2d MoTcment. 



1. Hands in the same position as 
before. 
Right arm, four times. ^ 

3. Left arm, four times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 



\' 



3d Movement. 



1. Hands in the same position as 

before. 

2. Right arm parpendicularly up 

ward, four times. 

3. Left arm perpendicularly up- 

ward, four times. 

4. Alternate, 

^5. Simultaneous. 



383 



BISCIPLINABY EXERCISES. 



III. Shoulder Exercise. 

ComTnand — Sliaulder Exercise — Position — Pluy ! 

1. Raise the right shoulder, 4 timeS: 

2. Raise the left shoulder, 4 times 

3. Alternate. 

4. Simultaneous. 



1st Movement 



5id Movement. 



1. Right shoulder, forward, once. 

2. Right shoulder, upward, once. 
8. Right shoulder,backward,once. 
4. Right shoulder,downward,once. 
5 Repeat, two times. 

6. Lett shoulder, lorward, once. 

7. Left shoulder, upward, once. 

8. Left shoulder, backward, once. 

9. Left shoulder, downward, once. 

10. Repeat, two times. 

11. Alternate. 

12. Simultaneous. 



O/mmand- 



1st Movement 



IV. Elbow Exercise. 

—Elboio Exercise — Position — Play / 

. Hands on hips, fingers front. 
. Throw the right elbow back, four 

times. 
. Throw the left elbow back, foul 

times. 
. Alternate. 
. Simultaneous. 



2d Movement. 



fl. Right elbow, forward, once. 
I 2. Right elbow, backward, once. 
' 3. Repeat, three times 

Left elbow, forward, once. 

Left elbow, backward, once. 

Repeat, three times. 
I .. Alternate, four times. 
\^8, Simultaneous, four times. 



4. 
5. 

I 6. 

' 7. 

8. 



CALISTHENICS. 



38ft 



V. Arm Exercise. 

Command — Arm Exercise — Position — Play ! 



ri. 

2. 
8. 



1st Movement. \ 4. 
5. 



Hands together, in front. 
Left hand, retain position. 
Right hand thrown back, eight 

times ; clap the hands. 
Right hand, retain position. 
Left hand thrown back, eight 

times ; clap the hand. 
Alternate, clap the hands. 
Simultaneous, clap the hands. 



VI. Hand and Finger Exercise 

Command— Hand Exercise— Position — Play ! 



1st Movement. \ 



8d Movement. < 



3d Movement. \ 



f 1. Stand erect, with hands at side, 
I and fingers firmly closed. 

2. Right hand twist, as in boring 
with a gimlet, four times. 

3. Left hand, four times. 

4. Alternate, four times. 

5. Simultaneous, four times. 

1. Right hand extended perpendic- 

ularly upward, rotate four 
times. 

2. Left hand, four times. 

3. Alternate, four times. 

4. Simultaneous, four times. 

1. Right arm extended perpendicu- 
"larly upward, with fingers 
spread apart, and shut, four 
times. 
1 2, Left arm, four times. 
1 3. Alternate, four times. 
t4. Simu 'taneous, four times. 



884 



DISCIPLINARY EXEBCISES. 



1st Movement. 



VII. Head and Neck Exercise. 

Command — Head and Neck Exercise — Position — Play! 

\ 1. Turn the head horizontally to the 
I right so that the face will be 

! on the shoulder, four times. 

\ 2. Turn the head horizontally to the 

lett, four times. 
(_3. Alternate. 

fl. Bow the head to the front, four 

times, 
\ 2. Head backward, four times. 
( 3. To the right, four times. 
1^ 4. To the left, four times. 



2d Movement. 



3d Movement. - 



1. To the front, once. 

2. To the right, once. 

3. To the back, once. 

4. To the left, once. 



VIII. Arm Exercise. 

Command — Arm Exercise — Position- 



-Play ! 



1st Movement. 



f 1. Palms together. 

2. Arms extended, horizontal, front. 

3. Right arm, four times. 

4. Left arm, four times. 

5. Alternate, 

6. Simultaneous. 





fl. 


Position like No. 1. 




2. 


Swing right arm from the hori- 
zontal front up to the perpen 
dicular, four times. 


2d Movement. -! 3. 


Swing left arm from the hori- 


zontal front up to the perpen 


1 


dicular, four times. 


I 4. 


Alternate, 




L5. 


Simultaneous. 



CALISTHENICS. 



385 



f 1. Position as in No. 1. 
I 2. Swing the right arm outward and 
I backward, four times. 

3d Movement. A 3. Swing the left arm outward and 
I backward, four times, 

j 4. Alternate. 
[5. Simultaneous. 

IX. Stepping Exercise* 

Command — Stepping Exereise — Fosiiion — Play ! 

f 1. Place the hands about the waist, 
I thumbs in front. 

I 3. Step obliquely to the right, front, 
1st Movement. X four times. 

J 3. Step obliquely to the left, front, 
I four times. 

[4. Alternate. 

'1. Same position as in No. 1. 
3. Step obliquely to the right, rear, 

four times. 
3. Step obliquely to the left, rear, 

four times. 
4c Alternate. 

1. Same position as in No. 1. 

3. Step to the right, four times. 

3. Step to the left, four times. 

4 Alternate. 



2d Movement. 



3d Movement. 



X. Slapjping Exercise. 

Command — Slapping Exercise — Position — Play ! 

^1. Arms extended horizontally 
front. 

3. Palms together. 
3 Strike left hand with right, four 

times. 

4. Strike right hand with left, tour 
times. 

5. Alternate. 

6. Simultaneous. 



1st Movement. ■< 



386 



DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 



2d Movement. - 



1. Arms perpendicular. 

2. Strike left hand with right, four 
times. 

3. Strike right hand with left, four 
times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 

'1. Arms placed behind. 
2. Stril^;e left hand with right, four 
times. 
3d Movement. ^ 3. Strike right hand with left, four 
times. 

4. Alternate. 

5. Simultaneous. 

XI. Chopping Exercise. 

Command — Chopping Exercise — Position — Play ! 

f 1. Hands raised above the head to 
the right, four times. 
Hands raised above the head to 

the left, four times. 
Alternate. 

Hands raised above the head to 
the left, four times. 

Hands raised above the head to 
the right, four times. 

Alternate. 



1st Movement. \ 2. 
I 
13. 

2d Movement. \ 2. 



13 
XII. Moving Exercise. 

Command — Moving Exercise — Position — Play ! 

f 1. Arms to the right. 
I 2. Move horizontally to the left, in 
I front, four times. 

I 3. Move horizontally to the left, at 
Movements. ■{ the right, four times. 

4. Move horizontally to the left, 
behind, four times. 

5. Move horizontally to the left, at 
the left, four times. 



CALISTHENICS. 



387 



Movement. - - 



XIII. Sawing E-xercise. 

Command — Sawing Mxcrcise — Position — Play / 

1. Elbow above the line of the 
shoulder. 

2. Down in front, four times. 

3. Turn to the right, down, four 
times. 

4. Turn to the rear, down, four 
times. 

5. Turn to the left, down, four 
times. 

^6. To your place. 

XIV. Trunk Exercise. 

Command — Trunk Exercise — Position — Play I 

\ 1. Hand about the waist, thumbs in 
front. 
2. Bend the body horizontally 
front, four times. 

Movements. - \ ^' ^^^,^^ ^\%}%^^ horizontally to 
I the left, four times. 

I 4. Bend the body horizontally to 
I the rear, four times. 

I 5. Bend the body horizontally to 
(_ the right, four times . 

Genera] Remarks and Explanations. 

These exercises are intended for those teachers 
who have learned no system. They are simple, and 
by taking one exercise at a time the whole series 
may soon be put in practice. Much of the benefit 
derived from Calisthenics is from the alternation of 
rigid and relaxed muscles. There should be an 
accent to the motion, and that accent should occur 
on the outward movement ; hence the muscles 
should be firm in the outward movement, and re- 
laxed in the return. 



888 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 

The Position. 

The position the children are to assume should be 
explained before the command is given. When the 
" Exercise " is called, all should take position in- 
stantly. The beauty of the exercise consists in 
regularity. 

On the word " Play," the musician should begin 
instantly, and the pupils should begin at the same 
instant, following their leader, 

Explain all the Movements. 

The teacher should take pains to explain all the 
movements before he requires execution ; and then 
see that all understand them, else there will be no 
uniformity in the movements. 

Direction of Movement. 

This order is tabulated under the head of ** Calis- 
thenics," and it means the line of course in which we 
move. All movements made before are called 
*' front ; '* those made directly on the right or left are 
called " extended ; " those made between the *' front" 
and " extended " are called " oblique ;" and, lastly, 
those made back of the extended are called " back- 
oblique," or backward. All motions made on a line 
with the shoulder are called " horizontal ; " all below 
a line with the shoulder are called " descending ; " 

all above a line with the shoulder are called " ascend- 
ing." 

Order ol 3Iovement. 

This means the successive order in which the right 
or left hand, arm, etc., are used in the movements. 



CALISTHENICS. 389 

Single movement is when the movements are made 
first with the right hand or arm ; then with the left, 
each a certain number of times, generally four ; 
second, alternate with the right and left a corres- 
ponding number of times ; and third, a stimultaneous 
movement of the right and left the same number of 
times. 

Double order is made with both hands simul- 
taneously. 

Time. 

The best way to teach the time, is to count, at first. 
Count one on the outward movement ; two on the 
return, and so on, till you count eight. Commence 
all movements with the right hand, arm, etc. Count 
eight for the right hand, then eight for the left, eight 
on the alternate movement and eight on the stimul- 
taneous action. 

List oi Books on Calisthenics and Gym- 
nastics* 

Root's School Amusements — A. S. Barnes & Co., 
New York. $1.50. 

Smart's Manual of Calisthenics — Wilson, Hinkle 
& Co., New York. 20 cts. 

Potter's Manual of Reading — Harper & Brothers, 
New York. $1.40. 

Diadem of School Songs, by Wm. Tillinghast— « 
B:ivis, Bardeen & Co., Syracuse. 50 cts. 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

School organization is a system of arrangement 
designed to secure constant employment, eflBcient in- 
struction and moral control. It aims at providing 
the means of instructing and educating the greatest 
number in the most efficient manner, and by the 
most economical expenditure of time and money. 

Organization puts each child in its proper place ; 
allots to each class proper work,— proper in kind and 
amount ; secures to each subject the time tb at is just- 
ly its due ; arranges the work, both as to place and 
kind, so as to preserve a quiet room, and properly 
distributes the work, so that no interest of the school 
in any of its parts shall suffer. 

I know full well the anxiety with which the young 
and inexperienced teacher anticipates the opening 
of the first school. The first questions that arise in 
the mind are: What shall I do? How shall I do it? 
When shall I do it? 

To organize, govern and discipline a school suc- 
cessfully, requires in-born qualities. It is very much 
easier for a general to command an army, than for a 
teacher to govern a school ; for a general has to con 
eider only immediate results, besides being invested 



sow TO BEGIN. 301 

"With absolute power, while the teacher has to con- 
sider chiefly results to be attained in the future, and 
he is forbidden by considerations of his own and the 
pupils' good, to exercise other than qualified author- 
ity. 

Choice of a School* 

The young teacher should not select a dlflOcult 
school at first. Too many teach for the pecuniary 
reward, and others do not consider whether or not 
they are adapted to particular schools. 

Contract* 

The contract should be in writing and express def- 
initely the conditions. Both parties should have a 
copy. Like all other business, it should be done in a 
business-like manner. Printed forms for these con- 
tracts may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
Syracuse, N. Y. , at ten cents a pair. 

Preparation for First Day's Work. 

This is all important. The seeds of failure are fre- 
quently sown the first hour. The teacher should 
have a plan in his mind ; just what Tie will do ; how he 
will do it; and when he will do it. He should not try 
to accomplish too much the first day ; must not be too 
anxious about courting the favor of pupils — good dis- 
cipline cannot be established in a day ; should use 
words expressive of friendly feelings and good inten- 
tions; should not let frowns cloud the brow, even 
though all may not be, at the outset, just as one might 
wish ; should leave nothing to the impulse of the 
moment ; should be firm, watchful and uniform, and 
should endeavor to make the^rs^ impression pleasant. 



392 SCHOOL organization: 

The First Exercises. 

Do not attempt to hear recitations the first morn- 
ing ; after opening the school with a general exercise, 
let them all join in singing some familiar piece ; this 
will dispel embarrassment. 

Enrolling the Pupils. 

"Write on the board the requirements, and pass 
slips of paper, letting all that can write hand in the 
following, viz : 

1. The full christian name. 

2. The lull christian name of parent or guardian. 

3. Residence. 

4. Ago. 

Let some pupils pass around and take the names, 
etc., of those who cannot write. 

Classification. 

In the highest classes institute a written examina- 
tion. This can be made a test exercise in spelling, 
penmanship, and the use of language. The ques- 
tions need not be difficult ; ten questions upon the 
different subjects will test the knowledge of the pu- 
pils as well as twenty. The pupils that cannot write 
should be examined orally, and a record kept of the 
standing of each pupil. It is not best to make sud- 
den and radical changes ; better adopt the classifica- 
tion of your predecessor, if you have not confidence 
in your own ability. 

Make all changes gradually and quietly and let the 
pupils see that it is for their interest and the good of 
the school. 



THE DAIL T PRO GRAMME. 393 

ronning Classes. 

After having carefully graded the pupils, then at 
tempt a temporary classification. It will be impossi • 
ble to adopt a permanent classification at first, and the 
pupils should so understand it. 

There should not be more than four grades in the 
public schools. The primer and first reader should 
constitute the D grade ; the second reader, the C 
grade ; the third reader, the B grade ; and the fourth 
reader the A grade. The number of classes in each 
grade should not exceed four, and, by close classifica- 
tion^ they need not exceed this number. 

Programme of Exercises. 

The teacher is now ready to draw up the plan of 
work, specifying the number of classes and the time 
of beginning, ending, and the length of each recita- 
tion. 

The programme should provide for study as well 
as for recitation. 

Advantages of a programme : — 

1. It lessens the labor of teaching. 

2. It makes teaching more effective. 

3. It promotes good order. 

4. It cultivates systematic habits. 

5. It promotes the ambition of pupils. 

While it is well to follow the programme carefully, 
yet the organization and discipline must not be too 
mechanical, or pupils will tire of it. No change 
in classes should be niade for visitors, unless by 
special request. 



304 SCHOOL ORaANIZATION, 

Class Movements. 

Pupils should be seated according to classificatioa 
so far as practicable, and graded according to height, 
seating the tallest pupils in the rear. The teacher 
should have the entire charge of seating the pupils. 
Teachers should change seat-mates when advisable. 
As a rule it is not best to place pupils of the same 
temperament together. The class movements should 
be conducted with precision, and no disorder should 
be allowed in ihe room. In no instance should the 
school-room be used as a play ground. 

Proper Care ol the School-Room. 

The pupils should not be allowed to deface, de- 
stroy, or in any way injure the school property. They 
should be required to keep the school-room in perfect 
order, and have a place for theii* books and imple- 
ments of work. 

Special Privileges. 

But very few special privileges should be granted 
to pupils, such as leaving seats, speaking to one 
another, asking questions of teachers, making com- 
plaints to teachers, receiving help from the teacher, 
etc. In a thoroughly organized school the granting of 
these privileges take but little, if any time. 
Keep np a Spirit of Work. 
Extract from the Eeport of Supt. William T. HariHs, 
St. Louis. 

Listlessness in the school-room is traced to : 

1. Lack of proper ventilation. 

2. Lack of equal temperature. 



WANTED : A SPIRIT OF WORK, 395 

8 Too long recitations for tlie strength of the 
pupils. 

4. Injudicious and too frequent concert recitation. 

5. The practice of *' keeping in " pupils at recess or 
after school for failure in lessons or misbehavior. 

6. Lack of definite analysis of the subject of the 
lesson by the teacher during recitation. 

7. Substitution of individual explanation on the 
part of the teacher for correction (in the class) of bad 
habits of study. 

On entering the room of a careless or inexperienced 
teacher, the visitor is struck by the lifeless atmos- 
phere that seems to pervade both teacher and pupils. 
The pupils all turn their gaze upon him as he enters 
and stare abstractedly, forgetful of the presence of 
the teacher and of the purpose of their attendance at 
school. The teacher languidly, or with a slight flush 
of surprise and embarassment, invites to a seat. After 
a little, the pupils settle back into the condition pre- 
vailing berore the entrance of the visitor. The pupils 
at their seats are variously employed : many are lean- 
ing over their desks, their faces full of ennui ; others 
are endeavoring to relieve the tedium of the slow 
creeping hour by ingenious devices of their own — 
pin-traps, spit-balls, picture-books under the desks, 
writing notes to their fellows, making caricatures on 
slates, scratching furniture, telegraphing on a small 
scale, etc, — some have books open before them, 
others not ; the class that is "on the line" for recita- 
tion are leaning against the blackboards behind them, 
or against the desks in front of them ; some are pay, 
ing attention to the lesson, others are busied with the 



396 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

pupils at their seats. The teacher is distracted and 

confused. 
Take the room as a whole, and the lack of the one 

spirit that should prevail in it is painful to witness. 

The almost audible sigh of the whole is : " Oh, that 

school were out ! " The visitor thinks of theLostos- 

Eaters and of the 

"Land 
In which it seemed always afternoon ; 
All round the coast the languid air did swoon, 
Breathing like one that had a weary dream." 

The visitor (who has come to inspect the school) 
looks carefully into the methods ^f instruction and 
discipline in order that he may discover the primary 
causes of this failure, and suggest its remedy. 

He notes : " This teacher has no force ; she has 
no hold over these pupils ; she does not make up her 
mind at the outset that she will have this and not that ; 
she commands incessantly, and does not wait to see 
whether any command is obeyed ; she obviously has 
not prepared herself on the lesson before coming to 
school, for, see, she holds the text-book in her hand 
and is closely confined to the text while she asks 
questions; at obvious allusions to the subject of the 
previous lesson she does not pause to call it up, nor 
does she illustrate the difficult portions of the lesson 
for to-day ; while she is looking in the book for the 
next question a pupil has answered the previous one 
inaccurafely, or has omitted the essential point ; she 
treats the important and unimportant questions alike; 
no wonder the pupils are listless !" 

But he sees that this phase is not the only one 
wherein the teacher acts like a novice ; in the more 



IS YOUR SCHOOL LIKE THIS? 397 

general programme similar defects manifest them- 
selves which he notes accordingly: 

The class is too large and too much time is taken 
to hear it ; the lesson for the next day is too long, and 
no directions are given as to how to study it; all those 
who fail are kept in at recess or after school ; some 
re('eive individual explanations, and consequently 
get in the habit of crowding around the teacher's 
desk, and of depending on his direct assistance. 
Added to this, the teacher hears many parts of the 
lesson in concert, and the consequence is, only those 
portions of the lessons are dwelt upon that are most 
mechanical, for only such can be recited in concert 
— discriminating and original answers cannot be 
in concert — concert answers must be something ver- 
batim and short answers: "Yes, sir," "No, sir," 
"Atlantic Ocean," and the like. Complete answers 
are made by the smart pupils, while^'the dull ones 
follow the lead and join in towards the end of the 
answer. The bright pupil answers the whole : 
"twenty-five thousand miles;" the less bright one 
says : " five thousand miles ;" and the dull one : 
" thousand miles ;" the dullest comes in at the word 
" miles." These pupils have not the power or disci- 
pline of mind to concentrate their attention for so 
long a recitation ; they get fatigued before it is 
through, and listlessness is the result. 

Again : "The ventilation is not attended to, and 
the impure air causes incipient congestion of the 
brain, and a few of the delicate ones have headaches, 
while all feel that apathy and indifference which ie 
its premonitory symptom." 



3i).S SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

•' Most important is the failure of the teacher ; she 
does not practise a system of definite analysis of the les- 
son at recitation. She asks probing questions only sel- 
dom ; the pupil is not made to seize the subject and 
analyze it till he thoroughly understands it. The 
consequence is, he does not know how to study the 
next lesson, nor when he has learned it, and 
therefore does not study at his seat, having no definite 
sense of his deficiency and of his ability to overcome 
it." 

These causes of failure when generalized may be 
traced to one prevailing defect on the part of the 
teacher. And this may be described thus : The 
teacher fails because she does not pay careful atten- 
tion to the power for work which her pupils a<^tually 
possess, and so lay out tasks and secure their accomp- 
lishment d.s, to increase constantly this power for work. 
Previous preparation on the part of the teacher is in- 
dispensable for this result. Everything should be 
digested by the teacher before entering the school- 
room ; she should re-inforce the moments by the Jiours, 
and ttus be able at all times to bring to bear the en- 
tire weight of her character upon the pupil. The 
practice of keeping the pupil in at recess for failure 
in lessons is very baneful in its effects. The cause 
of the failure is probably owing to inability to con- 
centrate his mind, and here the cure prescribed is 
calculated to heighten the disease. The teacher 
should get the lesson into such shape that the pupil 
can master it by a general assault, and he should not 
be allowed — at home or in school — to make a dissi 
pated, scattering attack on it. 



PliO GRAMME FOR UNGRABEB SCHOOLS. 399 

PROGEAMME for k^ Uls^GllADED SCHOOL. 

D. Class — 1st Term. 

Reading — First Reader, half through ; give special 

attention to tone. 
Numbers — {a) Learn figures. 

(5) Add and subtract by ones with tables. 

(c) Count, notate and numerate to 50. 
Spelling — All the new words in the reader. 
Writing — The words learned in reading and writing 

the pupil's own name with correct use of 

capitals. 

D. Class— 3d Term. 
Reading — Last half of Reader. 

Numbers — (a) Addition and Subtraction and Multi- 
plication by I's and 3's ; Min. and 
Prod, not to exceed 24. 
(J) Roman Numerals found in reader. 

Spelling — Same as first term. 

Writing — Words learned with proper use of capitals. 

Place — {a) The cardinal and semi-cardinal points and 
applications. 
(5) Lessons preparatoiy to giving the bound- 
ary of the room, such as ceiling, cor- 
ners, sides, &c. 

Color — Distinguishing and naming color. 

Size — General idea of size ; large and small ; larger 
and smaller ; largest and smallest. Also, 
long and short, with the three degrees, 
Also, height, with the degrees. 



400 SCHOOL ORaANIZATIOK. 

C. Class— 1st Term. 

Reading- -Half Second Reader ; special attention 
given to pronunciation and tone. 

Numbers— (a) Addition and subtraction and multi 
plication with tables of I's, 2's and 
3's ; sum or min. not to exceed 36. 
(p) Addition of columns of tens and units; 
no figures greater than three, and the 
sum of no column greater than 36. 
(c) Roman Numerals with reading. 

Spelling — All words used in reading by sound and let- 
ter. 
Writing — Instruction from board. 

Place — («) Draw map of streets or roads of Village or 
District, and locate buildings. 
(&) Name town and district oflQcers. 

C. Class— 2d Term. 

Reading — Finish Reader. 

{a) Give instruction in vowels. 
Numbers — (a) Addition and subtraction of I's, 2's, 
3's, 4's, 5's ; sum or min. not to ex- 
ceed 60. 
ip) Multiplication and division ; the sum. 
multiple and quotient not to exceed 
12. 
(c) Notation and numeration to 1,000,000 
Writing — Copy on the board. 

Spelling — Words in reading lesson. 
Place — ia) Teacher have map of county. 



PRO (GRAMME FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 404 

{b) Childrea name, locate and bound towns. 
(c) Tell direction each is from the other. 
{d) Name towns through which railroads pass. 
{e) Name and locate villages of each. 
(/) Name and locate creeks and rivers. 
{g) Give population of towns and county. 
(7i) Explain and name county seat. 
ii) Name town oflQcers and duties of each. 
{j) Draw map of county and give sq. miles. 
{k) Review. 

B. Class— 1st Term. 

Reading — Half of Third Reader. Particular atten- 
tion to pronunciation and modulation. 

Numbers — Finish division — written and intellectual, 
and review. Combination in notation and 
numeration to 1,000,000. 

Spelling — "Words in Third Reader — abbreviations 
found in reading or spelling. 

Penmanship — Instruction from board and No. 4 
Writing-Book. 

Grammar — Primary, first-half. 

Geography — One-half Primary, with drawing maps 
of same. 

B. Class— 2d Term. 

Reading— Finish Third Reader. Particular attention 
to pronunciation, modulation and inflec- 
tion. 

Numbers — Decimal and common fractions ; review. 
Spelling — Words in Reader and Geography, 



402 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

Penmanship — Class exercises and No. 5. 
Grammar — Finish Primary. 

Geography — Primary with map drawings for same. 
A. Class— First Term. 

Reading — Fourth Reader ; attention to thought, ex- 
pression and pronunciation, to precede the 
exercise. 

Arithmetic — Denominate numbers and simple and 
compound interest. 

Spelling — In word-book, words written. 
Penmanship — Book 6 ; class instruction from board. 
Grammar — Orthography and etymology. 
Geography — With map-drawing. 

A. Class— 2d Term. 
Reading — Fourth Reader ; attention as before. 

Arithmetic — Percentage, insurance, commission, 
profit and loss, taxes, discount, govern- 
ment securities and proportion. 

Spelling — Word-book, words written. 

Penmanship — Book 7, and class exercise. 

Grammar — Syntax and review. 

Geography. 

School Exercise in History — Teacher write a fact 
upon the board, talk about it and relate 
incidents which they have gathered regard- 
ing it. Review each day. 

Civil Government — The same. 



PROaRAMME FOR UNaRABED SCHOOLS. 403 



Programme of Exercises for an Ungraded 
School. 



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SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



Programme of Exercises for a County 



MOENING SESSION. 


Monday. 


Tuesday. 


9 00 to 9 02— Roll Crtll. 
9 Di! to 910--Dev. Exer. 
9 10 to 915— Singing. 
/ 9 15 to 9 50— Instruct'n. 
9 50 to 9 55-Fvest. 
9 r5 to 10 30— Instruct'n. 
JO .0 to 10 4(>-Rest. 

10 40 to 11 15— Instruct'n. 
1115toll-2&-Rest. 

11 20 to 11 55— Instruct'n. 
11 55 to 12 00— Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

School Organiz'n. 

Rest. 

Civil Government, 

Rest. 

Phonic Analysis. 

Rest. 

Language. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

School Managem't. 

Rest. 

Language. 

Rest. 

Arithmetic. 

Rest. 

Civil Government. 

Singing. 


AFTEENOON SESSION. 


;Monday. 


Tuesday. 


2 00 to 2 02-RoIlCall. 
2 02 to 2 10— Sinking. 
2 10 to 2 45— Instruct'n. 
2 45 to 2 50— Rest. 

2 50 to 3 25— Instruct'n. 
8 25 to 3 35— Rest. 

3 35 to 410- Instruct'n. 
4 10 to 4 15-Rest. 

4 15 to 4 50— Instruct'n. 
3 50 to 5 OO— Miscell'n's. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Number. 

Rest. 

Primary Reading. 

Rest. 

Spelling. 

Rest. 

Penmanship. 

Query Box. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Grammar. 

Rest. 

Geography. 

Rest. 

Reading. 

Rest, 

History, 

Query Box. 


EVENINa SESSION. 


Monday. 


Tuesday. 


7 30 to 7 35— Singing. 

7 35 to 8 CO— Discussion. 

8 00 to 9 00— Lecture. 


Singinc. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 



Sessions will begin promptly on time ; twenty minutes' notice 



FOR A TEACHERS INSTITUTE. 



40£ 



Teach 3rs' Institute of One Week. 



Wednesdat. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singins. 

Phonic Analysis. 

Rest. 

Map Drawing. 

Rest. 

Reading. 

Rest. 

Grammar. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

Arithmetic. 

Rest. 

History. 

Rest. 

Oral Instruction 

Rest. 

Language. 

Singing. 


Roll Call. 

Devotional Exer. 

Singing. 

School Discipline. 

Rest. 

Gram_mar. 

Rest. 

Elem. Nat. Science 

Rest. 

Physic'l Geog'phy. 

Singing. 


Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Teacli'g Alphabet. 

Rest. 

Composition. 

Rest. 

Drawing. 

Rest. 

Geography. 

Miscellaneous. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. (Recit'n. 

How to conduct a 

Rest. (ography. 

Mathematical Ge- 

Rest. 

Spelling. 

Rest. 

Elocution. 

Query Box. 


Roll Call. 

Singing. 

Theory & Practice. 

Rest. 

Physiology. 

Rest. 

Review. 

Rest. 

Closing Exercises. 


Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 


Singing. 

Discussion. 

Lecture. 



will be given by the ringing of the bell. 



406 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



Another Prosrraninie of Exercises for an 
Ungraded School. 





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SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



The strength, or it may be the weakness, of a 
teacher, is no where so clearly shown as in the gen- 
eral management of the school. 

For the maintenance of healthy discipline, it is not 
necessary that there should be great severitT in the 
punishment of offences. 

Firmness is the first requisite to school management ; 
the pupils must understand that the teacher has ab- 
solute control; that his authority is supreme; and this 
in most cases is sufficient in itself to hold the evil 
propensities of pupils in check. 

On the contrary, a lack of firmness will encourage 
the spirit of revolt, and make necessary frequent re- 
sorts to punishments of one kind or another. 

SchodI government should be administered in such 
a way that it shall he a reign of justice. The sense of 
justice is strong even in the case of vicious children. 
Offences will occur in the best conducted schools, but 
the teacher must discriminate between trivial, aggra- 
vated and serious or flagrant offences. 

Children know that disobedience and wrong-doing 
in general deserve punishment ; and providing that 



408 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

the degree of punishment does not exceed its just 
bounds, no feeling of resentment will be cherished 
toward him who inflicts the penalty. 

A teacher should not, generally, make a rule until 
there is a necessity for it. When the teacher, through 
close deliberation, thinks it to be for the best interest 
of the school to make a rule, then, and not until 
then, should he make it. It should then be enforced, 
and for a violation of the rule, a penalty should be 
inflicted. Children soon learn to feel a contempt for 
a teacher who does not insist on respectful obedience; 
they instinctively admire that firmness and decision 
which metes out to offenders their deserved punish- 
ment. Complete success in school management at 
the outset is not to be expected ; only by slow degrees 
can dexterity in governing be attained. Common 
sense is an important element in management. A 
noble Quaker once said, " There are three things a 
man needs to make him successful ; first, good health; 
second, religion ; and third, good sense ; if he can- 
not have but one of these, let it be good sense ; for 
God can give him grace, and God can give him re- 
ligion, but no man can give him common sense.''* 

Administration. 

The most diflScult part of school work is the ad- 
ministration. How often have I been asked, "tell 
me how to govern my school ?" The subject is, in- 
deed, one of the most important which can engage 
the attention of teachers. It is one which calls for 
experience, judgment and wisdom. Every pupil has 
a conscience, which decides on all actions contem- 



J^OT TOO MUCH, NOB TOO LITTLE. 409 

plated or begun — decides whether the act is right or 
wrong. One rule only, then, need be made : " Do 
nothing which your conscience tells you is wrong.'' 
This covers the whole ground and a score of rules 
will only weaken it. Some may say their conscience 
is depraved, but it is never entirely seared. 

Too much government may prove as injurious as 
too little ; both may prove failures. The teacher 
should govern as little and teach as much as possible. 
In some schools there is more of government than 
of teaching. The pupils should understand that in 
no instance will the teacher stop the recitation to 
manage a school or discipline a pupil. The teacher, 
if he observes that a pupil is disorderly during reci- 
tation, should silently mark him, and attend to the 
oflence during recess or at some convenient opportu- 
nity. 

All discipline has its spring in the character of the 
teacher. It depends more on the man than on his 
means. It is the character of the one that imparts 
efficacy to the action of the other. 

Character, not Reputation, is the Source of 
Success. 

Character is the source of success or failure in all 
pursuits. So apparent is its influence in schools that 
one who had many opportunities for observing has 
said that, " a teacher has more need to watch himself 
than his children, as the evils found in a school 
are often traceable to some omission, inconsiderate- 
ness, hastiness of temper, want of firmness, or ab- 
sence of principle in himself.'* 



410 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

The school becomes a reflector of the teacher, and 
in every case it will be a perfect reflector. A teacher 
cannot appear what he is not in the presence of the 
school. The thing is vain. Their eyes pierce through 
every disguise. 

He must be what he seems, and muot seem what 
he is. 

Teachers must Possess High and Noble 
Qualities. 

Love, honor, truthfulness sincerity, consistency, 
justice, patience and judgment must be elements of 
a teacher's character. Earnestness and cheerfulness 
are also elements. Earnestness has great influence 
over children ; cheerfulness is sunshine. 

Sympathy with them in their trials, sports and 
labors is an element of power: but fear, itever. 

Is there not a lesson prettily expressed in the fol- 
lowing : 

** He who checks a child with terror, 
Stops its play, and stills its song, 

Not alone commits an error. 
But a great and moral wrong. 

" Give it play, and never fear it, — 

Active life is no defect ; 
Never, never break its spirit, — 

Curb it only to direct. 

" Would you stop the flowing river, 
Thinking it would cease to flow ? 

Onward it must flow forever, — 
Better teach it where to go." 



' ' SOFT, GENTLE AND LOW:' 41i 



Teacher Should Use Low Tones. 

Yery particularly must it be kept in view by the 
teacher that quietness in governing is most naturally 
allied with good discipline. A loud voice reiterating 
commands in an authoritative tone, is often consid- 
ered favorable to discipline. It is not really so. A 
quiet way of issuing orders is favorable to quietness 
of disposition among the pupils. It conveys a double 
impression — that obedience is expected, and that 
there is a large reserve force at command, if the 
teacher should have occasion to need it to use. One 
thing deserving careful consideration is the import- 
ance of bringing the habit of obedience very early 
into play. 

If children are accustomed from their very earliest 
school experience to move together in accordance 
with fixed signals, the work of discipline is greatly 
simplified. Simultaneous movements — as in rising, 
taking seats again, or marching — always contribute 
to the result in a very pleasing way. We would en- 
courage the daily drill in Disciplinary Exercises and 
Calisthenics, as well calculated to enforce prompt 
obedience. 

The first thing that a child should learn is obedience. 
All governments and all peoples have regarded filial 
disobedience with great disfavor. The teacher should 
supplement the parent's work. 



412 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

School Discipline. 

A. — Offences against the School and Means of 
Correcting. 

I. Communicaiion. 

1. Suggestion, advice, admonition. 

2. Reproof, — make it unpopular. 

3. Restraint of personal liberties. 

4. Separate Seatmates. 

5. Printed reports. 

IT. Loud Study. 

1. Suspend exercises, until quiet 

2. Train pupils to study with closed lips. 

3. Reproof. 

III. Laughing. 

1. Suspension of exercises. 

2. Pupils laugh until "weary of it. 

3. Reproof. 

1 V. Moving Noisily. 

1. Train the pupils how to walk, to stand, to sit, 
and to move. 

2. Always admonish them, when a command is 
violated. 

3. Let the pupils try again, until they do it quietly. 

4. Slates should be covered. Teachers should set 
the example. 

V. Questions during Bedtation. 

1. Prohibit them. 

2. Show impropriety. 

3. Refuse to notice signals. 

4. Reproof. 



GOBREGTION OF GOMMON OFFENGES. 416 

VL Litter on the Floor. 

1. Encourage neatness. 

2. Require the floor to be in order. 

3. Carefully inspect the floor in the presence of 
the pupil, without ".ny remarks. 

VII. Writing Notes. 

1. Give them all the work they can do. 

2. Read them, omitting names, 
2. Ask for the writer. 

4. Destroy the notes without reading them. 

VIII. Uncleanliness. 

1. Send pupils out. 

2. Send pupils home. 

3. Insist upon cleanliness. 

IX. Disoi'der. 

1. A place for every thing, and every thing in ita 
place. 

2. No changing of position, without permission. 

3. Always to be held accountable for the care of 
property. 

4. Quiet attention when addressed. 

Remark. — Instruct, train and drill pupils in habits 
of order, manners and morals. 

B. — Offences Against Pupils, and Means of 
Correcting. 
I. Tattling. 

1. Shun impropriety — leads to gossip and slander, 

2. Refuse to notice it. 

3. Reprove. 

4. Show its sinfulness. 



414 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

11. Quarrelling, 

1. Persuade of sinfulness. 
3. Oblige to play alone. 
3. Make it unpopular. 

///. Untruthful ■■ess. 
(1. Ignorance. 

1 Find out the cause J ^- Thoughtlessness. 
1. J^inaouttnecause.^3 Selfishness. 

[4. Innate tendency. 

ri. Loss of reputation. 

3. Tell them the effect. \ I Y^^ °^, character. 
j.^.11 ixxtrxi i,xiv. v.xxv.v,u, ^ ^ \jOs,s of conscience. 

[4. General demoralization. 
Cultivate honor. 



A WORD m Conclusion. 



The facts of the past, the claims of the present, and 
the responsibilities of the future suggest so much 
which might be said, that I am somewhat perplexed 
in deciding upon what I ought to say. Nevertheless 
I have concluded to say a few words to the readers 
of the School-Room Guide. 

To Commissioners and Superintendents. 

Upon you rest, to a great extent, the success of the 
schools and the advancement of the educational in- 
terests of this country. 

It is by the recommending and licensing of com. 
petent and efficient teachers that you are the most 
successful in promoting the interests of your charge. 
Let the teachers recommended by you be selected 
more with reference to social culture, exalted moral 
character, the development of true manhood and 
womanhood, than to either scholarship or talent. This 
you can do by selecting and recommending only such 
persons as shall illustrate in their lives the moral les- 
sons which should be set as an example in schools. 

You stand pledged to further the interests, not only 
of literature and science, but of the sublimest type 
of morality. 



416 A WOBD IN CONCLUSION. 

If you would redeem this pledge you will not license 
as a teacher any one who violates the law of moral 
purity, who gives to social dissipation the hours thai 
belong to sleep, or who indulges in any practice of 
vice. A sacred trust is committed to you, which, if 
faithfully and wisely discharged, shall make your 
own day beautiful and scatter blessings doing the 
pathway of coming years. 

Conclusions drawn from Experience. 

An experience of twenty-five years in the field of 
education has secured principles and conclusions 
which may be considered not only general state- 
ments, but facts. One fundamental fact thus gained 
is, that the school should be an appendage of the 
family, fitted to train the ignorant and weak by self- 
sacrificing labor and love, and to bestow the most atten- 
tion on the weakest, the most undeveloped and the 
most sinful. It is exactly the opposite course to which 
teachers are most tempted. 

The bright, the good, the industrious, are those 
whom it is most agreeable to teach, who win most 
aflTection, and who promote the reputation of a 
teacher, and of a school or a college. 

To follow this principle, then, demands more clear 
views of duty and more self-denying benevolence 
than ordinarily abound. 

Another general principle obtained by experience 
is, that both quickness of perception and retentive- 
ness of memory depend very greatly on the degree of 
interest excited. 

By this same general principle of quickening Intel- 



LESSONS TA UGHT B Y EXPERIENCE. 417 

lect by exciting interest, we have learned the impor- 
tance of educating young persons with some practical 
aim, by which, in case of poverty, they may support 
themselves. 

Another very interesting fact revealed by personal 
experience is, that there is no knowledge so thorough 
and permanent as that gained in teaching others. 

Repeatedly has it been observed that a lesson or a 
problem supposed to be comprehended was imperfect* 
and corrected only in attempts to aid others in under- 
standing it. In no other profession is the sacred 
promise, " Give and it shall be given unto you," so 
fully realized as in that of a teacher. 

Another very important principle in acquiring 
knowledge is to take but few branches at one time 
and especially to have these associated in their 
character, so that each is an assistance in understand- 
ing and remembering the others. 

There is a great loss of time and labor in the com- 
mon method of pursuing four or five disconnected 
branches of study. 

The mind is distracted by the variety and feels a 
feeble and divided interest in all. 

In many instances, this method of cramming the 
mind with uninteresting and disconnected details 
serves to debilitate rather than to promote mental 
power. The memory is the faculty chiefly cultivated, 
and this at the expense of the others. 

To Teachers* 

I tnist that I shall not be considered as transcend- 
ing the proper limit of remark, if I should submit to 



418 A WOBI) 7iV CONGLjmiON. 

your consideration some thoughts relating to the 
teacher's work. 

In government, be gentle yet firm ; not anxious to 
govern in those things which are innocent and 
harmless, but to restrain practices which are unques- 
tionably immoral by the exercise of all the authority 
with which you are invested. 

In order that you may worthily discharge the duties 
which thus confront you at the threshold of your 
field of labor, it is of the first importance that your 
own habits of thought and life be wholly correct. 

No one is fit to govern others until he has learned 
to govern himself. Self-government and self-restraint 
are not possible without intelligence and virtue. 

The task of the teacher is one of great responsi- 
bility and labor. 

It is very much easier for a general to command an 
army than for a teacher to govern a school ; for a 
general has to deal with and consider only immediate 
results, besides being invested with absolute power, 
while the teacher has to consider chiefly results to be 
attained in the future, and he is forbidden by consid- 
eration of his own and the pupil's welfare to exercise 
other than qualified power. 

Then the military commander trains his soldiers to 
wield only weapons against material fortifications, 
while the teacher is to discipline those under his or 
her care and control, in the skilful use of the mental 
and moral powers, and prepare them to contend suc- 
cessfully against superstition, begotten of ignorance, 
against habits of thought and action which reach 



THE FINAL CAUSE. 419 

their root far back in the centuries and " against 
spiritual wickedness in high places." Hence great 
statesmen and victorious generals are of little value 
in any country without efficient teachers. 

To our public schools we must look for those who 
will be called upon to manage the affairs of families, 
to transact the business of town and of state, to fill 
the vacated bench of justice, to sit in the halls of 
legislation, and to direct and control the church of 
God. 

Upon the character of our schools and teachers, 
therefore, depends the weal or woe of unborn mil- 
lions, the prosperity or downfall of our boasted in- 
stitutions. 

As the concluding thought, teachers and friends, 
may we all bear in mind that our life in this world is 
but the preparatory department in the School of God. 

Let us be so attentive to the lessons given us by the 
Great Teacher, that when the day of examination with 
us severally shall come, we may hear the glad wel- 
come **well done," and at last gather beyond the 
River, under the cloudless sky, undimmed by the 
shade of night, there to renew our search for knowl- 
edge and our labors of love, with immortal faculties, 
which are least weary when most employed. 

FINIS. 



APPENDIX. 



CLIMATE. 



II^TEODUOTIOR 

The investigation of Climate and its modifica- 
tions is tlie province of tlie student. It will be 
at once admitted that an acquaintance with the 
agencies is of paramount importance to every 
person. 

The great agents are the air, rain, frosts, 
springs, brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, moun- 
tains, and the sea. 

It is Climate, and Climate alone, that deter- 
mines mainly the character of all vegetable and 
animal life. 

Climatic agents are not only now the most im- 
portant and influential, but they have been so dur- 
ing all past geological ages. To account for all of 
the extraordinary changes of Climate would require 
many volumes. There is one point to which I 



423 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 



wish particularly to direct attention, viz., that I 
have studiously avoided introducing theories of a 
hypothetical nature. 

The conclusions are in every case derived 
either from facts or from recognized principles. 

The student should never rest until he gets at 
the reasons for what he sees about him. He 
should know something about the air he breathes, 
and the earth he lives upon, and about the rela- 
tions between them. It is this great book of 
Nature, wherein each of us, young and old, may 
read, and go on reading all through life, without 
exhausting even a small part of what it has to 
teach us— it is this great look — Air^ Earthy and 
^Qd — which I would have you study. 



CLIMATE. 



ELEMENTS. 

1. What is meant by climate ? 

When we speak of the heat or cold of the air, 
we include an element of climate. 

2. Where does the heat come from ? 
It comes from the rays of the sun. 

3. When do the sunbeams give the most heat? 
The sunbeams give the most heat when they 

fall most directly upon any part of the earth. 

4. When do the sunbeams give the least heat ? 
The sunbeams give the least heat when they 

fall the most obliquely. 

6. When we speak of the heat or cold of the 
air, what word is generally used ? 
The word temperature is used, 

6. When the air is very hot, what may be said 
of the temperature ? 

It is said to be very high. 



i24 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

7. When tlie air is very cold, what may be 
said of the temperature ? 

It is said to be very low. 

8. In our country, which part of the day is 
warmest — morning, noon, or evening ? 

It is warmest at noon. 

9. "Why is it warmer at noon than in the morn- 
ing or evening ? 

In the morning and the evening the rays of 
the sun fall in a slanting direction, and we receive 
comparatively few of the rays, because they are 
spread over a great surface. 

At noon, when the sun is more or less directly 
upon us, then we receive more of them because 
they fall upon a comparatively small space. 

Rays falling directly from overhead are said to 
be vertical * those falling in a slanting direction 
are said to be oblique, 

!N"oTE. — A diagram put on the black-board will bring 
the matter home to the pupil's comprehension. Draw an 
horizontal upward curve ; upon this draw two parallel ver- 
tical lines, two parallel oblique lines, and two parallel 
horizontal lines, striking at the same arc. The vertical 
sheaf of rajs, striking the earth at noon, falls upon a small 
surface. In the middle of the forenoon or afternoon, the 
rays, falling obliquely, are spread over a greater surface. 
At sunrise or sunset no part of the sheaf touches the earth's 



TEMPERATURE. 425 



surface except its lower side, and most of the rays are lost 
in the atmosphere beyond. Tell the pupils that the sun 
always shines vertically, or nearly so, on the equator, and 
on a considerable belt beyond the equator on either side. 
Now, just as the sunbeams fall more directly at noon 
than in the morning or evening, so they fall more directly 
during the summer season than during the winter season. 

10. In our part of the world is the sun ever 
directly overhead ? 

In our country the sun centre is never directly 
overhead, and his rays fall upon us in the most 
nearly vertical direction on the longest summer 
day. 

11. When you speak of climate, then, what 
one element does it include ? 

It includes temjperature — that is, the heat or 
cold. 

First Important Fact. — Temperature — ^that is, 
the heat or cold of a place — is one element of cli- 
mate. 



12. Does climate include any other element ? 

It does ; in some countries immense quantities 
of rain fall ; in others none, or next to none, falls 
there. In the rainless districts it would be a dry 



428 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

climate ; where they have immense quantities it 
would be a wet or damj^ climate. 

13. When we speak of a wet or dry climate, 
what word is generally used % 

The word inoisture is used. 

14. When you speak of climate, then, what 
other element does it include ? 

It includes moisture — that is, whether it is wet 
or dry. 

Second Important Fact. — ^Moisture, or humid- 
ity — that is, whether it is wet or dry — is another 
element of climate. 



15. What is the first element in climate ? 
IG. What is the second element in climate ? 

17. Does climate include any other element ? 
It does ; in some places they have a windy 

climate or a stormy climate. 

18. When you speak of climate, then, what 
other element does it include ? 

It includes the wind — we will call it the pre- 
vailing wiiids. 

Third Important Fact — The prevailing winds 
form an element of climate. 



THREE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE. 427 

19. What are the three elements of climate ? 
The three elements of climate are temperature, 

moisture, or humidity, and prevailing winds. 

20. A climate that is neither too hot nor too 
cold, what may it be called ? 

A climate that is neither too hot nor too cold 
is called temjperate. 

21. When it is very hot or very cold, what is 
the climate said to be ? 

It is said to be extreme. 

22. What does an extreme climate mean ? 
One that is either too hot or too cold. 

23. Of a climate that is neither too wet nor 
too stormy, neither too hot nor too cold, what 
may be said ? 

A climate that is in every way fine and agree- 
able is called genial or salubrious. 

REVIEW. 

How many elements are included in climate ? 
Three elements are included. 

1. Temperature — that is, the heat or cold. 

2. Humidity^ or the state of being wet or 
dry. 

3. The j[>revailing winds. 



428 APPENDIX: CLIIfATK 

(a). A temperate climate means one that is 
neither too hot nor too cold. 

(h). An extreme climate means one that is 
either too hot or too cold. 

(c). A genial or salubrious climate means one 
that is in every way fine or agreeable, favorable 
to health. 

Note. — The above facts under the Eeview should be 
written on the board, and the pupils should be required 
to copy and commit them to memory. 

CAUSES AND MODIFICATIONS. 

1. How can we tell what variety of climate 
any country has ? What must we know before 
we can tell ? 

I^OTE. — Before this division of the subject is taken up, 
a lesson should be given on the shape or form of the earth, 
lines upon the earth's surface, etc. 

When we concluded our lesson upon the lines 
on the earth's surface, we stated that the earth, in 
its motion, like a wheel, revolves around an im- 
aginary line called its axis. 

The most northern point of the earth's surface 
is called the North Pole, and the most southern 
point the South Pole. 

There is a line that is called the equator, drawn 



TEE ZONES. 429 



at an equal distance from each pole, and dividing 
the earth-surface into equal parts. 

The countries where the sun shines directly 
overhead, or perpendicularly, are those that are 
near this line — the Equator — (use a globe if you 
have one, or at least a map ; place a diagram on 
the board, illustrate fully). 

Here, 23^° north of the equator, is another 
line, called the Tropic of Cancer, and 23^° south 
of the equator is the Tropic of Capricorn. 

Any country lying anywhere between the 
tropics is called intertropical. And since these 
countries have the sun directly overhead at certain 
seasons, and nearly so at all other seasons, they 
will have a hot climate. And as we go nearer to 
the poles it becomes colder, till at last, at the po- 
lar regions, we would find only ice and snow. 
We learn from these facts that the heat through- 
out the year is greatest at or near the equator, and 
diminishes gradually toward the poles. Thus we 
see that the climate of a place depends upon the 
latitude of the place. The latitude of a place is, 
therefore, of the first importance in determining 
its temperature, since a decrease of heat takes 
place with an increase of latitude as we travel, at 
the same level above the sea, from the equator 



toward the poles. 
2 



430 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

So it will be seen that temperature is the fun- 
damental element in climate, and influences all the 
others. 

CAUSE. 

At the equator, and within the tropics, the 
greatest heat is experienced, because the sun is 
always vertical to some place within those lim- 
its, and the solar action is more intense in propor- 
tion as the rays are vertical to the earth. 

As we recede from the equator they fall more 
obliquely ; and, because fewer of them are spread 
over a larger space, they are less powerful, and 
consequently have less influence on tempera- 
ture. 

It has been calculated that, out of 10,000 rays 
falling upon the earth atmosphere, 8,123 arrive at 
a given point if they fall vertically ; 7,024, if the 
angle of direction is 50° ; 2,821, if it is 7° ; and 
only 5 if the direction is horizontal. 

As it will be seen, the amount of heat pro- 
duced by the sun upon the earth's surface is 
greatest near the equator, and diminishes gradual- 
ly toward the poles, and that these causes are ref- 
erable, first, to the spherical form of the earth, 
and the angle at which the sun's rays impinge 
upon the surface. 



INFLUENCE OF LATITUDE. 431 

In the equatorial regions they are vertical to 
the surface of the earth, and there produce this 
maximum effect; but, on account of the curved 
outline of the globe, they fall more and more 
obliquely with increasing latitude, and the inten- 
sity of action diminishes proportionally. At the 
poles they are tangent to the surface, and their 
effect is zero. 

From these facts we may deduce the following 

GENERAL LAW. 

The climate of a place depends principally on 
its latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

"When we ascend mountains, the air becomes 
cool, cooler, cold, colder, till finally we find our- 
selves amid snows that last all the year around. 

We may travel several hundred miles from 
the equator toward the poles, along the level sur- 
face of the earth, before we become sensible of a 
diminished temperature ; but, when we ascend the 
mountains between the tropics, when we begin to 
increase our elevation, a rapid change of tempera- 
ture is experienced, and those places that are 
elevated will be colder than those at the level of 
the sea. 



433 APPENDIX: CLULATK 

On an average, an increase of 330 feet in alti- 
tude diininishes the temperature 1° Fahr. ; hence, 
the rate of diminution is about 3° to 1000 feet. 

In large plateaus, however, the effect of alti- 
tude seems to be, in some measure, intensified 
by the great extent of absorbing and radiating 
surface uplifted into the atmosphere. In general 
they are considerably warmer than the isolated 
summits of mountains of the same altitude. 

From this effect of elevation upon temperature, 
it is obvious that the mountain regions of the tor- 
rid zone have great varieties of climate. 

In this region we may find vines at the base 
of the mountain. The region of vines rises from 
the level of the sea to a certain height ; in this 
zone of vegetation may be found the date-tree, the 
sugar-cane, the fig, and the olive ; next come the 
hardy species of trees, as the oak, the laurel ; 
higher, the birch, the pine, and the firs ; higher 
still may be found the grasses; and, beyond, a 
few plants and lichens ; and, still beyond, the 
vegetation ceases entirely, and we have reached 
the line of perpetual snow. 

Note, — Illustrate the zones of vegetation by a diagram 
at the board, using colored chalk. 

From these facts we gather that the tempera- 



INFLUENCE OF ALTITUDE. 433 

tnre of a place depends not on its latitude alone, 
but on its elevation, or, as it is called, its altitude. 

CAUSE. 

The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere 
absorb the greatest amount of the sun's heat, and 
are necessarily the warmest; the atmosphere is 
not much heated by the direct rays of the sun, 
but receives heat mainly by radiation from the 
earth surface. 

First Modification. — The altitude of a place 
modifies the climate. 



Mountains also modify the climate of large 
area of lower lands in their vicinity. Their eleva- 
tion intercepts the moist currents approaching 
from the oceans, and their cold summits condense 
the moisture, causing it to be precipitated. 

Consequently, the winds, on leaving the moun- 
tains for the interior, are dry, and give the charac- 
teristic of dryness to the climate of the interior 
areas. This modification is well illustrated in our 
own country by the climate of our Western Plains, 
which are influenced in their climatic conditions by 
the high, cold wall of the Rocky Mountains. 

The valleys west of this range have abundant 



434 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

rainfall, and, consequently, rich fertility, while 
those to the east have almost perpetual drouth, 
and consequent sterility. 

Therefore, another modification of climate is 
the proximity of mountain ranges. 

Seco7id Modification. — The proximity of moun- 
tain ranges modifies the climate. 



Heat causes winds. Winds are motions of 
parts of the atmosphere ; warmer portions ex- 
pand, become lighter, rise, and their places are 
filled by cold air. 

Hence, tropical heat causes an ascending warm 
current of air at the equator. The heavy cold air 
from the poles, flowing toward the equator, causes 
Trade Winds on each side of the equator. 

Ascending air cools, contracts, and descends 
to the surface beyond the tropics, meets the polar 
currents, and forms the retui-n currents. 

The motion of the earth causes the polar and 
return currents to be turned from their northern 
or southern direction, and they take a northeast- 
ern or southwestern course. 

The character of a wind depends upon the 
region whence it comes- Winds from the equa- 



INFLUEN'C:E! OF PREVAILING WINDS. 435 

torial regions carry into tlie middle latitudes some 
portion of the heat of the tropical regions ; while 
polar winds bring the low temperature of the lati- 
tudes whence they come. 

If there is nothing to break the force of the icy 
winds coming from the arctic region, we may ex- 
pect that country to be cold even if it is pretty 
far south ; on the other hand, if there is nothing 
to break the force of the hot winds coining from 
the torrid region, we may expect that country to 
be warm, even if it is pretty far north. 

In the United States the winds from the north 
are usually noted for their coolness, a property 
they derive from the frozen regions of Hudson 
and Baffin's Bay, while those from the south, com- 
ing from the Gulf of Mexico, impart a mildness 
throughout the whole country. 

The comparatively mild climate of the British 
Isles is owing to the prevalence of main currents 
of air which are warmed by sweeping over the 
regions of the Gulf Stream. 

In the same latitude the shores of Greenland 
and Labrador are washed by the icy waters of the 
arctic currents and swept by the polar winds. 

The one region has a mild climate, and is oc- 
cupied by the most enlightened nations of the 
world; the other is a frozen waste, sparsely in- 



436 APPEXDIX: CLIMATE. 

habited bj degraded savages and European trad- 
ers. 

We gather from these facts that the climate 
of a place depends not alone on its latitude, alti- 
tude, or proximity to mountain-ranges, but on the 
character of the winds. 

Third Modification, — The prevailing winds at 
a given place modify the climate. 



Oceanic climate is characterized by unif onnity. 
Wate7' has a great capacity for absorbing heat, and 
but feeble conducting power ; hence, the ocean 
grows warm slowly under the rays of the sun, and 
never attains a high temperature. It also radiates 
heat slowly, and as fast as the surface-particles be- 
come cool, they sink and are replaced by warmer 
ones from beneath ; hence the cooling process is 
as gradual as the heating, and neither produces ex- 
tremes of temperature. 

The ocean retains the heat longer than the 
land. In the summer the land is warmer than 
the sea, and in the winter the land is cooler than 
the sea. 

iN'oTE. — This is a general statement, and does not refer 
to daily variation of temperature. 



INFLUENCE OF THE OCEAN. 437 



The air from the ocean moderates the heat of 
summer and cold of winter. So the coasts have 
a more equable temperature than the interior. 

The land absorbs the solar heat rapidly, and 
the surface soon attains a high temperature. Es- 
pecially is this the case when the soil is imper- 
fectly covered with vegetation, as in treeless plains 
or deserts. 

But, when the sun is withdrawn, heat radiates 
with rapidity, and a comparatively low tempera- 
ture is soon reached. It is seen that the ocean 
preserves a much more uniform temperature than 
the land, hence islands and maritime districts 
have milder climates than inland regions under 
the same parallels of latitude. London, though 
situated in a higher latitude, enjoys a milder cli- 
mate than Paris. The winters and summers of 
Ireland are much more temperate than those of 
any other country in the same latitude. 

SEA-BREEZE. 

Let us take an example in !N"ature, and see 
what passes on an island alone in the midst of the 
ocean. Let us remember that the land is heated 
more readily than the sea. In proportion as the 
sun rises above the horizon, the island becomes 
warmer than the neighboring sea. 



438 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

Their respective atmosplieres participate in 
these unequal temperatures, the fresh air of the 
sea rushes from all directions under the form of a 
sea-breeze, which makes itself felt along the whole 
coast, and the warmer and lighter air of the island 
will ascend into the atmosphere. 

During the night it is the reverse. The isl- 
and loses heat by radiation, and cools quicker than 
the sea. 

Its atmosphere, having become heavier, runs 
into that of the sea, under the form of land- 
breeze, and this interchange lasts until the tem- 
perature, and consequently the density, of the two 
atmospheres has again become the same. 

This is the phenomenon observed on the east- 
ern coast of Georgia, Florida, and almost daily on 
nearly all the seaboards. 

What takes place here on a small scale in the 
space of a day, passes on a great scale between 
the entire continent and the ocean from one seas- 
on to another. A moment's reflection will enable 
us to see that these differences of temperature, 
setting the whole atmosphere in motion, modify 
the climate of a place. 

So it is seen that the water of the sea keeps an 
island warm in winter and cool in summer. 

In the centre of a continent the wind in win- 



OCEAN CUBRENTS. 439 

ter blows over immense fields of snow or ice, and 
keeps the air cold ; and in summer it blows across 
the heated land, and the air must be very warm ; 
the countries in the centre of a continent have an 
extreme climate ; hence the nearness to, or re- 
moteness of a place from, the ocean modifies the 
climate. 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a 
place to, or its distance from, the ocean modifies its 
climate. 



There are rivers in the ocean called oeecm-cur- 
rents. They consist of vast oceanic streams which 
keep up a perpetual circulation of the waters. 
Some of them have been traced many thousand 
miles. All the rivers in the world are insignifi- 
cant when compared with some of these cur- 
rents. 

They move on steadily through water compar- 
atively at rest, and are often different from the 
latter in color and temperature. Some are hun- 
dreds of miles broad, thousands of feet deep, and 
have a course embracing the larger part of the 
ocean in which they move. 

Currents exist not only at the surface, but in 
deep waters, where their course is frequently in a 



440 ATPTimyiX: CLIMATE. 

different direction from, sometimes even opposite, 
to that of the surface-currents. 

The direction and velocity of currents are 
modified: 1. By the revolution of the earth on 
its axis ; 2. By the constant winds of the Torrid 
Zone ; 3. By being turned aside by the shores. 

CAUSES OF CURRENTS. 

The expansion and contraction of water by 
heat and cold are, perhaps, the principal causes to 
which currents are due. Heat causes water to 
become warm ; warm water is lighter than cold, 
and, when certain portions become heated, they 
rise by reason of their buoyancy, and are replaced 
by surrounding colder and heavier water ; the 
warmer and lighter water flows toward the poles, 
an equal quantity of the cold and the heavier 
water flowing at the same time toward the equa- 
tor. The ocean-currents assist to cool the trop- 
ical and to warm the polar regions. 

Evaporation by solar heat causes large quan^ 
titles of water to pass off in vapor ; and it is 
this excessive evaporation within the tropics 
which tends to lower the level of the water 
there. 

The revolution of the earth round its axis is 
still another powerful cause in producing currents, 



THE GULF STREAM. 44t 

particularly those of the equatorial regions, which 
have commonly a westerly direction. 

The winds of tropical climates, which blow 
continuously or during long periods in one direc- 
tion, also lend their influence in affecting the cur- 
rents. 

The effect of the rise and fall of tides in pro- 
ducing an alternate flowing of currents in oppo- 
site direction is perceived in channels between 
islands, or between islands and the mainland. 

Thus, in the channel which connects Long Isl- 
and. Sound with the harbor of ISTew York, known 
as the East River, strong currents alternately pre- 
vail in opposite directions, as the tide ebbs or 
flows. 

The Gulf Stream, which first becomes appar- 
ent near the northeast coast of Cuba, has a great 
influence on climate. The Gulf Stream, as it 
issnes from the straits of Florida, is of a dark 
indigo-blue ; so strongly contrasting with the 
greenish color of the sea that the line of contact 
is distinctly traceable by the eye. Near its ori- 
gin this remarkable current has a breadth of 32 
miles and a depth of more than 2,000 feet ; off 
Cape Hatteras the breadth is at least 75 miles, 
and the depth more than TOO feet. 

Its temperature at its origin is about 80° Fahr. i 
3 



M3 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 

on an average it is from 20° to 30° warmer than 
the adjacent waters. 

The comparatively high temperature of this 
great stream modifies the climate of the eastern 
coast of North America ; also as it sweeps across 
the Atlantic Ocean, in its northeast com'se to the 
British Isles and Norway, it modifies the climate 
of those countries. It will be seen, by a study of 
the ocean-currents^ that the polar currents bring 
cold to the eastern shores of the continents, and 
the return currents bring heat to the western 
shores, and that they produce contrasts in temper- 
ature in the same latitude on opposite shores of 
continents. These currents modify the climate ; 
we gather from these facts that ocean-currents 
modify the climate of a country. 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean-currents modify the 
climate of a place. 



The annual quantity of rain that falls in a 
place considerably affects its climate, by imparting 
a greater or less degree of humidity or dampness 
to the atmosphere. In general more rain falls in 
islands and on sea coasts than in inland districts ; 
among mountains than in level regions ; and within 
the tropics than in the other zones. 



INFLUENCE OF BAIN. 443 

CAUSE OF RAINS. 

Heat and winds produce rains.- Heat causes 
evaporation ; the vapors rise in tlie air ; air at a 
given temperature has a certain capacity for moist- 
ure ; when this limit is reached the air is said to 
be saturated with humidity, and the least lower- 
ing of the temperature causes a condensation of 
moisture in the form of dew, fog, clouds, or 
rain ; but, if the temperature is raised, the capa- 
city for vapor being increased, absorption recom- 
mences. 

As long as the amount of vapor present in 
the air is much less than is required for satura- 
tion, evaporation goes on rapidly, and the air con- 
tinues to absorb the rising vapors. It is, there- 
fore, called dry air. When the air is nearly satu- 
rated evaporation proceeds but very slowly ; when 
saturation is reached evaporation ceases, and the 
air is moist or humid. 

Visible masses of vapor resting on or near 
the ground are called fogs, while those floating in 
the air a considerable height are distinguished as 
clouds. 

CONDENSATION— ITS CAUSES. 

Condensation and rain are mostly caused by 
the cooling of currents of warm air laden with 



444 APPENDIX: CLUIATE. 

aqueous vapors. Cold causes condensation; the 
vapors condensed fall as rain ; hence rain is 
caused by the cooling of air laden with moist- 
ure. The temperature of tropical winds advan- 
cing into cooler latitudes is lowered^ the moist- 
ure is then condensed, and the rain falls. Cold 
winds, if saturated, advancing into warmer lati- 
tudes become expanded, and their capacity for 
moisture is increased ; they become less humid, 
the clouds dissolve, and the air becomes clear 
and dry. 

Winds blowing over plains retain their moist- 
ure, but if they strike a mountain they become 
cooled, and the rain falls. Plateaus usually re- 
ceive less rain than other forms of relief, because 
the mountains, which form the borders of the 
greater number, prevent the vapors borne by the 
winds from reaching them. 

From these facts we see that the annual 
amount of rain modifies the climate of a place. 

Sixth Modification. — The annual quantity of 
rain modifies the climate of a place. 



The nature and covering of the soil have an 
influence upon the condensation of the vapor in 



INFLUENCE OF THE SOIL. 445 

the air. A region with nothing to shield it from 
the burning rays of the sun, becomes intense- 
ly heated, and imparts to the superincumbent 
air a temperature so high as to dissipate all 
clouds which may float into it from the surround- 
ing atmosphere. A covering of vegetation, on 
the contrary, shields the soil from the sun's rays, 
keeps its temperature lower, and promotes conden- 
sation. And whether a region be bare or cov- 
ered with vegetation it greatly affects its climate. 
From these facts we see that the nature and cov- 
ering of the earth have an influence upon cli- 
mate. 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering 
of the soil modify the climate of a place. 



The clearing of forests, the draining of swamps 
and marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are 
among the operations of man by which the cli- 
mate of a country is greatly modified and im- 
proved. 

Clearing a country of trees has the effect of 
raising the mean annual temperature, but at the 
same time greater extremes of heat and cold are 
introduced. Open grounds are always frozen 



446 APPENBIX: CLUIATE. 

deeper than woodlands, but the latter retain the 
snow and ice of winter to a much later period in 
the spring than the former. 

From these facts, we see that the cultivation 
of a place modifies its climate. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultiva- 
tion and improvement modifies the climate of a 
place. 



Both the moisture and salubrity of a region 
are influenced by its vegetation. 

The leaves of trees and plants give forth moist- 
ure to the atmosphere, and take from it its car- 
bonic acid ; heuce the forests receive more rain 
than treeless regions similarly situated, while at 
the same time they check the evaporation of moist- 
ure from the soil ; thus they equalize the irriga- 
tion of the surrounding country and augment the 
volume of its springs and rivers ; hence forests 
effect an important modification of climate. 

Salubrity or the health condition depends great- 
ly on the general character of the surface, as to 
evenness or unevenness. When the areas are even 
or flat the waters spread over larger surfaces, be- 
come stagnant, and charged with decaying vegeta- 
ble and animal matter. 



INFL JJENGE OF SUBFA CE. 447 

The adjacent atmosphere receives foul emana- 
tions from these unwholesome waters, and the re- 
gion is thus rendered insalubrious and unhealth- 
f ul. Where, on the contrary, the surface is uneven 
or broken, the waters collect into narrower cur- 
rents and move with considerable velocity, carry- 
ing away decaying substances, cleansing the region, 
and rendering its climate more and more whole- 
some. 

Hence an important modification in a region 
results from its evenness or unevenness of surface. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or uneven- 
ness of the surface modifies the climate of a place. 



418 APPENDIX: CLIMATE. 



EECAPITULATIOK 

ELEMENTS. 

Krst Important Fact. — Temperature — that is, 
the heat or cold of a place — is an element of cli- 
mate. 

Second Important Fact. — Moisture — that is, 
whether it is wet or dry — is an element of climate. 

Third Important Fact. — The prevailing winds 
are an element of climate. 

GENERAL LAW. 

The climate of a place depends principally on 
its latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

First Modification. — The altitude of a place 
modifies the climate. 

Second Modification. — The proximity of moun- 
tain ranges modifies the climate. 

Third Modification. — The prevailing winds mod- 
ify the climate. 



EE CAPITULATION. 449 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a place 
to, or its distance from, the ocean, modifies the 
climate. 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean currents modify the 
climate of a place. 

Sixth Modification. — The annual quantity of 
rain modifies the climate of a place. 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering 
of the soil modify the climate of a place. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultiva- 
tion and improvement modifies the climate of a 
place. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or uneven- 
ness of the surface modifies the climate of a place. 

KINDS OF CLIMATE. 

1. A temperate climate means one that is 
neither too hot nor too cold. 

2. An extreme climate means one that is either 
too hot or too cold. 

3. A genial or salubrious climate means one 
that is in every way agreeable, favorable to health. 

DEFINITION". 

The condition of a country in regard to tem- 
perature, moisture, and the prevailing winds, is 

CLIMATE. 



CLIMATE TOPICALLY AEEAKGED. 

( 1, Temperature. 
L Elements, •< 2. Humidity. 

( 3. Prevailing winds. 

n. Geneeal Law. 

The climate of a place depends principally on 
its latitude. 

HI. Modifications. 

1. Altitude modifies climate. 

2. Proximity of mountain ranges modifies cli- 
mate. 

3. The prevailing winds modify climate. 

4. The proximity of the ocean modifies climate. 

5. Ocean currents modify climate. 

6. The annual quantity of rain modifies climate. 

7. The nature and covering of the soil modify 
climate. 

8. The degree of cultivation modifies climate. 

9. Evenness or unevenness of surface modifies 
climate. 



HOW TO TEACH CLIMATE. 

1st. Develop every fact separately. 

2d. Develop the elements of cliraate. 

3d. Develop the general law of climate. 

4th. Develop the Tnodifications of climate. 

6th. Develop the definition of climate. 

6th. "Write the principal facts developed on 
the board. 

Yth. Ask the pupils to commit them to mem- 
ory. 

8th. Place the tabulation on the board. 

9th. Require the pupils to recite from the 
tabulation. 

10th. Reproduce the lesson. 

11th. Illustrate from the board as fully as 
possible, using colored chalk. 

12th. Require the pupils to assign a reason for 
every phenomenon connected with climate. 

13th. Give thorough drill. 



458 



TOFIC-A.L INDEX 



TO 



DE GRAFF'S SCHOOL-ROOM GUIDE. 



PAGE 

ARITHMETIC 182-228 

I. FiBST Ideas. 184 

II. Addition 188 

a. German Method 189 

6. Axialysis 192 

HI. Subtraction 193 

Analysis 194 

IV. MtTLTIPLIOATION 195 

V. Division 196 

VI. The Grube Method 197 

VII. Feactions 211 

a. General Principles 213 

6. Analysis 216 

Vni. GENEBAii Principles. 

a. Practical Suggestions 200 

6. Fallacies in Analysis 202 

c. Order in Solution 205 

d. Mental Arithmetic ? 207 

CALISTHENICS 372-389 

I. DisciPLiNARX Commands 373 

II. Calisthenic Movements 379 

CLIMATE 421-451 

I. Elements -423 

a. First Important Fact— Temperature 425 

b. Second Important Fact— Humidity 426 

c. Third Important Fact— Prevailing Winds 426 



454 DU OBAFF'S SCHOOL-ROOM GUIDE. 

PAGE 

IL Kinds 428 

a. Temperate 428 

&, Extreme 428 

c. Salubrious 428 

in. Genekal Law 431 

IV. Modifications 431 

a. Altitude 433 

h. Proximity to Mountain Ranges 434 

c. Prevailing Winds 436 

d. Bodies of Water 439 

e. Ocean Currents 442 

/. Annual Quantity of Rain 444 

g. Nature and Covering of the Soil 445 

A. Degree of Cultivation 446 

i. Evenness or Unevenness of the Surface 447 

V. Definition 449 

VI. Tabulation— Topically Abbanged 450 

Vn. HowioTeach 451 

DRAWING 93-101 

I. An Essential Subject 93 

II. Elementary Definitions 97 

in. Geometbical Analysis 100 

GEOGRAPHY 246-308 

I. Pbimaby Geography 

a. The Earth as a Whole 247 

b. Relative Position 250 

c. Cardinal Points 251 

d. Geographical Definitions 254 

n. Advanced Geography 256 

a. General Directions 256 

6. North America 259 

General Features 261 

Surface 265 

Tabulation 271 

C. New York State 272 

Surface 275 

Rivers 280 

Cities 2t^ 



TOFICAL INDEX. 455 



PAGE 

GEAMMAE 229-245 

I. The Sentence 239 

IL Ci-ASsiriCATiON 244 

(See Language Lessons.) 

HISTOEY 309-317 

L Obdinaky Teaching UsEi-ESS 310 

n. PiiopEE Method 313 

m Incidenxal Lessons 316 

LA2JGUAGE ' 102-149 

L The PuBPOSE OF Gbammae. , 103 

n. Specimen Lessons 105 

a. L^soa on Objects 105 

6. Lesson on Words 11§ 

c. Lesson on Sentences 114 

d. Lesson on Classification 117 

e. TheNoun 129 

/. Punctuation 106,128 

g. Lesson on Paragraphs 133 

nL ScBjECTS FOE Composition 147 

LETTER-WEITING 150-181 

L Some Facts fkom Washington 152 

n. Analysis of Letter- Weiting 15S 

o. Introduction 162,174 

6. Body of the Letter 167 

c. Conclusion 168, 178 

d. Superscription. 169,181 

in. Pbactical Hints 17d 

IV. Models 174 

MANAGEMENT, 407-4U 

L AEeign of Justice 407 

n. GOVEENMENT. 408 

in. ClBABACTEB OF THE TeACHEB 410 

Vf. Low Tone of Voice 411 

V. Common Offenses.. 412, 363 

NATUEAL SCIENCE 318-537 

I, Canthey be Taught? 818 

n. Object Lessons, 823 

a. Lesson ou Salt 326 



456 B:E GRAFF'S SCHOOL-ROOM GUIDE. 

PAGE 

&. Lesson on the Bear 330 

c. Lesson on Divisibility 334 

ORGANIZATION 390-406 

I. Peeparation 391 

II. The Fibst Day 392 

III. Dally Pbogbamme 393, 399 

IV. A Spirit of Wokk 39-4 

PENMANSHIP 80-92 

I. Analysis 80 

II. Position and Movements 84 

III. CONSTBUCTION OF LETTERS 88 

PHONICS 47-59 

I. Importance of Teaching 47 

II. Vowels 50, 56 

in. Consonants 54, 58 

BEADING 9-46 

I. Different Methods 

a. Word Method 10 

6. Object Method 15 

c. Phonic Method • 16 

d. Phonetic Method 18 

e. Phonotypic Method 19 

/. Word-building Method 19 

g. Look-and-Say Method 19 

A. Sentence Method 20 

i. Drawing Method 22 

j. A, B, C Method 23 

II. Primary Beading 24 

m. Intermediate Beading 33 

rV. Advanced Beading 84 

a. "Nelly" 35 

6. Bhetorical Divisions 37 

V. How TO Gain Success 41 

BECITATIONS 338-371 

I. Main Object 338,340 

II. How to Conduct 339,340 

a. Oral Method 350 

6. Text-Book Method 351 



TOPICAL INDEX. 457 



PAGE 

c. Socratic Method 352 

d. Topical Method ; 353 

e. Discussion Method 354 

/. Lecture Method 355 

m. Laws of Questioning 357 

rV. FlBST Pbinciples 

Corporal Punishment 363 

V. Suggestions to Young Teachebs 367 

SPELLING 60-79 

L Difficult "Woeds 62 

II. Obal Spelling 62, 67 

III. Weitten Spelling 64 

IV. Methods of Teaching 69 

a. Constructive Method 69 

6. Objective Method 89 

c. Four Methods 70 

V. Study the Difficult Wokds 73 

Teachers' Institutes 401 



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Alexander (S. D.) Princeton College during the 
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American Educational Monthly. 10 vols. 

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Ames, Jr. (Azel). Sex in Industry. A Plea for the 
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Arnold (M.) A French Eton ; or Middle-Class 
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Essays in Criticism. 120. New York. 2 00 

Literature and Dogma. 12". N.York, i 50 

God and the Bible. 120. New York, i 50 



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ing Training Colleges. (2) Grammar, Burgh, and 
Endowed Schools, and the Universities. Each, 3 50 

5. Superior Instruction iu Different Countries. 960 
pages. 5 50 

6. Scientific and Industrial Education in European 
Countries. 800 pages. 5 50 

7. Special Instruction in Science and the Arts in Great 
Britain. 256 pages. 3 00 

8. Schools and Colleges of Science, Agriculture, and the 
Mechanic Arts in the United States. In press. 300 

9. Military and Naval Schools in Europe and the 
United States. 960 pages. 6 00 

10. Professional Training and Improvement in (i) 
Teaching; (2) Theology; (3) Law; (4) Medicine, 
&c., in Different Countries. 850 pages. 5 50 

Barnard (H.) National Pedagogy and Library 
of Practical Education: 

1. Studies and Conduct: Letters, Essays, and Sugges- 
tions on the Relative Value of Studies, Books and 
the best Methods of Reading, Manners and the Art 
of Conversation, the Acquisition and True Uses of 
Wealth, and the Conduct of Life generally. 564 
pages. 1875. 3 50 

2. Primary Schools and Elementary Instruction : Ob- 
ject Teaching and Oral Lessons on Social Science 
and Common Things, with the Principles and Prac- 
tice of Elementary Instruction in the Primary, Mod- 
el, and Training Schools of Great Britain. Revised 
Edition. 54^ pages. 3 00 



3- English Pedagogy — Old and New: or, Treatises 
and Thoughts on Education, the School, and the 
Teacher. First Series, Ascham to Wotton. 480 
pages. Second Series, Arnold to Wolsey. 608 
pages. 1876. Each 3 50 

4. American Pedagogy: Contributions to the Princi- 
ples and Methods of Education. 576 pages. 3 50 

5. German Pedagogy: Views of German Educators 
and Teachers on the Principles of Education, and 
Methods of Instruction for Schools of different 
Grades. 640 pages. 3 5^ 

6. Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy: Memoir, and Edu- 
cational Principles, Methods, and Influence of John 
Henry Pestalozzi, and Biographical Sketches of sev- 
eral of his Assistants and Disciples ; together with 
Selections from his Publications, and Accounts of 
Schools and Teachers in Switzerland. 656 pages. 

3 50 

7. German Teachers and Educational Reformers : Me- 
moirs of Eminent Teachers and Educators with 
contributions to the History of Education in Ger- 
many. 1876. 586 pages. 3 50 

8. French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy — Old and 
New. 648 pages. 3 50 

9. English Teachers, Educators, and Promotors of Ed- 
ucation. 556 pages. 3 50 

10. American Teachers, Educators, and Benefactors of 
Education, with Portraits. 5 vols. Per vol., 3 50 

11. American Graded Public Schools, with Plans of 
School-houses and Equipment and Regulations for 
Schools in Cities. 556 pages. 3 50 

12. Aphorisms and Suggestions on Education and 
Methods of Instruction — Ancient and Modern. 3 00 

13. School Codes: Constitutional Provisions respect- 
ing Education, State School Codes, and City School 
Regulations. 3 00 

14. School Architecture: Principles, Plans and Speci- 
fications for Structures for Educational Purposes. 
Revised Edition — 800 pages, 1000 illus'tions. 5 00 

15. Oral Training Lessons for Teachers. 12® New 
York. I 00 



i6-20. Papers for the Teacher. Five Series. 8". 

Each 3 oo 

21. The Polytechnic School at Paris. I 50 

22. Tribute to Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, LL.D. I 50 

23. Reformatory Education in Different Countries. 

3 00 

Bartle (Geo.) A Few Words to Parents and 
Guardians on Education of Youth. CI. 16°. Lond. 25 

Hartley (Geo. C. T.) The Schools for the Peo- 
ple; containing the History, Development, and pres- 
ent Working of each description of English School 
for the Industrial and Poorer Classes. Thick 8**. 
London. 7 50 

Bates (Samuel P.) Lectures on Mental and Moral 
Culture. 12^ New York. I 50 

• Method of Teachers' Institutes and the 

Theory of Education. I2*>. New York. 75 

Beebe (L. N.) First Steps among Figures. A 
Book to assist Teachers to use the Grube Method. 
16°. Syracuse. I 00 

Beecher (Catharine E.) Educational Reminis- 
cences and Suggestions. 16". New York. i 00 

Physiology and Calisthenics in Schools and 

Families. Over 100 illustrations. 160. N. Y. I 00 

Belding (Pamelia). Infant-Class Manual. 18". 
New York. 75 

Bible in the Public Schools (The). Argu- 
ments in the case of John D. Minor et al. v. The 
Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati et al., in 
the Superior Court of Cincinnati; with the Opinion 
and Decision of the Court. 8°. Cincinnati. 2 00 

Arguments of Messrs. Ramsey, Sage, and 

King in the above case in favor of the use of the Bi- 
ble. 80. Cincinnati. 50 

Arguments of Messrs. Stallo, Hoadly, and 

Matthews in the above case against the use of the Bi- 
ble. 8". Cincinnati. 50 

• Opinion and Decision of the Supreme Court 

of Ohio in the above case. 8°. Cincinnati. 25 

See Library of Education. 



BiGELOW (J.) Modem Inquiries ; Classical, Pro- 
fessional, and Miscellaneous. 12°. Boston. 2 50 

Blackie (John Stuart). On Self-culture, Intel- 
lectual, Physical, and Moral. A Vade Mecum for 
Young Men and Students. 160. New York. I 00 

Bower (A.) The History of the University of 
Edinburgh, chiefly compiled fronni original papers and 
records never before published. 2 vols. 8". Boards, 
uncut. Edinburgh, 181 7. 3 50 

Brace (Chas. L.) The Dangerous Classes of New 
York, and Twenty Years' Work among them. 12°. 
New York. 2 50 

Brackett (Anna C.) The Education of Ameri- 
can Girls, considered in a series of Essays by Ameri- 
can Women. 12". New York. I 75 

Bradford (W. H.) The Thirty Problems of Per- 
centage, lb**. Syracuse. 25 

Bridges (F.) Hints to Mothers on Home Educa- 
tion. Small 8**. London. I 40 

Bristed (Chas. A.) Five Years in an English 
University. Fourth edition. 12°. New York. 2 50 

Brown (Goold). Grammar of English Gram- 
mars. 8°. Sheep. New York. 6 25 

Burton (W.) The Culture of the Observing Fac- 
ulties in the Family and in the School ; or, Things 
about Home, and How to make them Instructive to 
the Young. 16°. New York. 75 

CALDERWOOD (Henry). On Teaching: Its 
Ends and Means. 16". New York. I 25 

California, History of the Public School 
System of, by John Swett. 8". San Francisco. 2 00 

Calkins (N. A.) Primary Object Lessons, for 
Training the' Senses and Developing the Faculties of 
Children. 12°. New York. I 50 

Canada Educational Directory and Year 
Book. 8". Toronto. 60 

Carpenter (J. E.) Popular Readings in Prose 
and Verse. 12". London. 2 00 

Cassell's New Popular Educator. Revised 



to the present date. With numerous additions 
Complete in 6 vols. 8<*. London. Per vol., 2 50 

Cassell's Technical Educator. With colored de- 
signs and numerous illustrations. Illustrated. 4 
vols. 4". London. Per vol., 3 00 

Central Society of Education. Papers by 
eminent English Educators. 12^. London. i 25 

Chapman (J. G.) Schools and School-masters, 
from the Writings of Charles Dickens. I2<'. New 
York. I 25 

Clarke (E. H.) Sex in Education ; or, a Fair 
Chance for Girls. i6*>. Boston. I 25 

The Building of a Brain. 16". Bost. i 25 

Classical Studies, as Information, or as Train- 
ing. By a Scotch Graduate. 12". New York. 50 

Classified Catalogue of Educational 

Works in use in Great Britain in the early part of 

1871, with prices and publishers. S**. Lond. 3 00 

Cole (W. H.) The Institute Reader and Normal 

Class Book. 12". Cincinnati. i 50 

Commissioner of Education (U. S.) Annual 
Reports, 1870, i, 2, 3, 4, 5. 8«. Each 2 00 

Comfort (Geo. F. and Mrs. Anna M.) Woman's 
Education and Woman's Health; chiefly in reply to 
'* Sex in Education." 16". Syracuse. I 25 

Combe (A.) A Treatise on the Physiolog-ical and 
Moral Management of Infancy. For the use of pa- 
rents. i8<* New York. 75 

Corson (Hiram). Elocutionary Manual. Phila- 
delphia. I ^o 

COUTIE (Geo.) The Education of Boys for Busi- 
ness ; being Practical Suggestions to Parents on the 
Education of their Sons for Commercial Life. I2«. 
London. I 60 

CuRRiE Q.) Common School Education. 12°. 
London. i ^o 

The Principles and Practice of Common 

School Education. 12"*. London. 3 00 

The Principles and Practice of Early and 

Infant School Education. With an Appendix of 



Hymns and Songs, with Appropriate Melodies. 12". 
London. 2 00 

Cyclopedia of Education (The). Edited by 

H. Kiddle and A. J. Schem. 8^. New York. 5 00 

DAILY Public Schools in the United States. 

80. Philadelphia. i 50 

Dall (Caroline H.) The College, the Market, 
and the Court ; or Woman's Relation to Education, 
Employment, and Citizenship. 8° cl. Boston. 2 50 

Davies (Emily). The Higher Education of Wom- 
en. 12°. I 50 

Davis (Emerson). The Teacher Taught ; or the 
Principles and the Modes of Teaching. 12°. Bos- 
ton. I 00 

Day (H. N.) The Science of Esthetics ; or the 
Nature, Kinds, Laws and Uses of Beauty. 120. 
New York. 2 00 

Deaf and Dumb.. See Latham, Reet, Scott. 

DeGraff's School-room Guide. Embodying 

the instruction given by the author at Teachers' In- 
stitutes, in New York and other States, and especially 
intended to assist Public School Teachers in the prac- 
tical work of the school-room. By E. V. DeGraff, 
A.M. 16". I 50 

The Institute Song Budget. A Collection 

of Songs and Music for Schools and Educational 
Gatherings. 160. Syracuse. Ppr. 0.15; cl. 50 

De Tocqueville (Alex.) American Institutions. 
1 20. I 50 

Diaz (Mrs. A, M.) The School-master's Trunk. 
Illustrated. 160. Boston. I 00 

Dickens (Chas.) Schools and School-masters. 
Edited by T. J. Chapman. 120. New York. i 25 

Dialogues and Dramas for School and 

Home. 12". New York. i 50 

Donaldson (James). Lectures on the History 
of Education in Prussia and England, and on kindred 
Topics. 12". Edinburgh. i 40 

Donaldson (John Wm.) Classical Scholarship 
and Classical Learning considered, with especial ref- 



erence to Competitive Tests and University Teaching : 
A Practical Essay on Liberal Education. I20. Lon- 
don. 2 GO 

DOUAI (A.) A Reform of the Common English 
Branches of Instruction. Manual introductory to and 
explanatory of the Series of Rational Readers. 80. 
New York. 30 

DUFFEY (Mrs. E. B.) No Sex in Education ; or. 
An Equal Chance for both Girls and Boys. Being a 
Review of Dr. Clarke's "Sex in Education." 160. 
Philadelphia. I 00 

Duncan (A1.) The Examiner ; or Teacher's Aid. 
Designed to assist Candidates for Teachers' Certifi- 
cates in preparing for Examination, Pupils in review- 
ing Studies, Teachers in examining Classes. 120. 
Cincinnati. 50 

Dunn (H.) Principles of Teaching. 12". Lon- 
don. I 75 

DupanlOUP (Monseigneur). The Child. Trans- 
lated, with the a-uthor's permission, by Kate Ander- 
son. 120. Boston. I 50 

DwiGHT (B. W.) Higher Christian Education. 
120. New York. I 50 

EDGEWORTH (R. L. and Maria). A Treatise 
on Practical Education. 12°. New York. i 50 

Edison (J. S.) Legitimate System of National 
Education. 80. London. i 75 

Education in Ireland. Thirty-seventh Report 
of the Commissioners of National Education in Ire- 
land. With Appendices. 8°. Paper. Dublin, i 75 

Education in Japan. A Series of Letters ad- 
dressed by Prominent Americans to Arinori Mori, 
Japanese Minister. 12°. New York. i 50 

Educational Year Book. 1873. 120. New 

York. I 00 

Eggleston (G. C.) How to Educate Yourself. 
A complete Guide to Students, showing how to Study, 
what to Study, how and what to Read. 12°. New 
York. 75 

Ellis (W.) Education as a Means of Preventing 
Destitution. 8". London. i 60 



EvELETH. School-house Architecture. Designs 
for School -houses, with Perspectives, Elevations, 
Plans, Sections, Details, and Specifications, all drawn 
to working scale, with methods of Heating and Ven- 
tilation. 4°. New York. 6 oo 

Everett (Edward). Importance of Practical Ed- 
ucation and Useful Knowledge ; being a Selection from 
his Orations and other Discourses. 12'*. N. Y. I 50 

Examiner (The), or Teacher's Aid. 12°. Cin- 
cinnati. 5® 

FARRAR (F. W.) Essays on a Liberal Educa- 
tion. 8°. London. 3 00 

Fearon (D. R.) School Inspection. 12". Lou- 
don. I 00 

Fichte (J. G.) On the Nature of the Scholar and 
its Manifestations. 12°. London. I 25 

The Vocation of the Scholar. 12°. Lon- 
don. I 00 
The Sdence of Knowledge. 12°. Phila- 



delphia. 2 00 

Popular Works of. Translated from the 



German, with a Memoir of the Author, by Wm. 

Smith. Portrait. 8°. London. 6 00 

Fitch (J. G.) Art of Questioning. 16°. Paper. 

New York. 15 
Art of Securing Attention. 16°. Paper. 

New York. 15 

Fitzgerald (Percy). Pictures of School Lite. 

80. London. I 75 

Five Hundred Mistakes of Daily Occurrence in 

Speaking, Pronouncing and Writing the English Lan- 
guage. 12°. New York. 80 
Fletcher (Matilda). Practical Ethics for Schools 

and Families. 8°. New York. i 00 

Forrester (A.) The Teacher's Text-book. 8<». 

Halifax. 4 00 

Foster (J.) On the Evils of Popular Ignorance. 

12°. New York. i 25 

Four Years at Yale. By a Graduate of '69. 

12". New Haven. 4 00 



FowLE (W. B.) The Teachers' Institute; or, 
Familiar Hints to Young Teachers. I2<>. N. Y. I 25 
Fowler (O. S.) Education and Self-improvement 
Complete. Comprising Physiology— Animal and Men- 
tal ; Self-culture and Perfection of Character ; includ- 
ing the Management of Youth ; Memory and Intellect- 
ual Improvement. I2«. New York. 3 50 
Frankland (Ed.) How to Teach Chemistry. 
Hints to Science Teachers and Students. Being the 
Substance of Six Lectures dehvered:'at the Royd 
College of Chemistry, June, 1872. Summarized and 
edited by G. Chaloner. I2«. Philadelphia. I 25 
ROBISHER (J. E.) Selected Readings, Serious 
and Humorous, in Prose and Poetry, with an Appen- 
dix on Elocution, etc. I2». Syracuse. 

Paper, 0.25 ; boards, 50 
Fry (Herbert). Our Schools and Colleges, giving 
the principal particulars respecting English educational 
institutions. I2«. London, 1867. _ 2 00 

Fuller (Thos.) The History of the University 
of Cambridge, from the Conquest to the Year 1634, 
with illustrative notes. 8«. Cambridge, 1840. 3 00 
FURNIVALL (Fr. J.) Education in Early England. 
Some Notes used as forewords to a Collection of 
Treatises on " Manners and Meals in Olden Times," 
for the Early English Text Society. 8». Paper. Lon- 
don. ^ SO 
GARVEY (M. A.) A Manual of Human Culture. 
12". London. 3 °^ 
Gill (John). The Art of Teaching Young Minds 
to Observe and Think. i6». London. I 00 

Systems of Education. A History and 

Criticism. 12"'. London. i 4^ 

GiLMORE (J. H.) Outlines of the Art of Expres- 
sion. I2«. Boston. I 25 
Gow (A. M.) Good Morals and Gentle Manners 
for Schools and FamiUes. I2«. Cincinnati. I 25 
Grant (Horace). Exercises for the improvement 
of the Senses, and providing Instruction and Amuse- 
ment for Children who. are too Young to learn to Read 
and Write. iS*. London. 4° 



Grey (Mrs. Wm.) Paper on the Study of Educa- 
tion as a Science. London. 20 

Gross (Magnus). Languages and Popular Edu- 
cation. Three Addresses. (The Study of the German 
Language. — The Value of Popular Education. — The 
Study of Languages [with a Table showing the Pedi- 
gree of the Aryan or Indo-European Tribe of Lan- 
guages. ]) 12". Paper. New York. 30 

Grosser (W. H.) Illustrative Teaching. iS**. 
Flexible cloth. New York. 30 

HAILMAN (W. N.) Outlines. A System of 
Object Teaching prepared for Teachers and Parents. 
With an Introduction by J. N. McElligott 120. 
New York. I 00 

Twelve Lectures on the History of Peda- 
gogy, delivered before the Cincinnati Teachers' Asso- 
ciation. i(fi. Cincinnati. 75 

Hall (Rev. John.) Familiar Talks to 3 oys. 12°. 
New York. I 00 

Hamilton (Richard W.) The Institutions of 
Popular Education. Second edition. 12°. London, 
1846. I 25 

Hanna (Sarah R.) Bible History: a Text-book 

. for Seminaries, Schools and Families. 12®. New 

York. I 50 

Hart Qames Morgan). German Universities. A 
Narrative of Personal Experience, together with re- 
cent Statistical Information, Practical Suggestions, and 
a Comparison of the German, English, and American 
Systems of Higher Education. 12°. New York. I 75 

Hart (J. S.) In the School-room ; or, Chapters 
in the Philosophy of Education. 12^. Phila. I 25 

Mistakes of Educated Men. 18". Phila- 
delphia. 50 

Harvard Examination Papers. 12°. Bos- 
ton. I 50 

Hazen (W. B.) The School and the Army in 
Germany and in France. With a Diary of Siege Life 
at Versailles. 120. New York. 2 50 

Heberden (W.) On Education. A Dialogue 



after the manner of Cicero's Philosophical Disquisi- 
tions. 1 80. London, 1818. 2 25 

Hecker Qohn). The Scientific Basis of Educa 
tion, Demonstrated by an Analysis of the Tempera 
ments and of Phrenological Facts in connection with 
Mental Phenomena and the Office of the Holy Spiri* 
in the Processes of the Mind, in a Series of Letter? 
to the Department of Public Instruction in the City of 
New York. Second edition. 8°. New York. 2 5c 

Hiatus : The Void in Modern Education. It? 
Causes and Antidote, by Outis. 8°. London. 3 00 

Hill (Florence). Children of the State ; the Train- 
ing of Juvenile Paupers. 16^. . London. 2 00 

Hill (Rev. Thomas). The True Order of Studies. 
12*'. New York. i 25 

History and Progress of Education. 12°. 

New York. I 50 

Hittell (John S.) A Brief History of Culture. 
12°. New York. I 50 

HOARE (Mrs. Sam'l). Hints on Early Education, 
etc. 12*'. London. i 00 

HODGINS (J. G.) The School-house : its Architec- 
ture, Arrangements and Discipline, with Additional 
Papers on Various Subjects. 8°. Toronto, 1858. 2 00 

Special Report on the Ontario Educational 

Exhibit and the Educational Features of the Inter- 
national Exhibition at Philadelphia, 1876. 8**. Paper. 
Toronto. 3 00 

Hodgson (W. B.) The Education of Girls, and 
the Employment of Women of the Upper Classes, 
educationally considered. Two lectures. Crown, 
8**. London. i 40 

HOLBROOK (Alfred). School Management. 12°. 
Lebanon. I 50 

The Normal ; or, Methods of Teaching- the 

Common Branches. 12°. New York. i 50 

Hooper (E.) Our Nurseries and School-rooms : 
Being remarks on Home Training and Teaching, 
specially for Ladies engaged in Tuition. Crown 80. 
London. 75 



HOOSE (J. H.) Studies in Articulation : a Study 
and Drill Book in the Alphabetic Elements of thf 
English Language. 16°. Syracuse. 5c 

Notes on the Departments of Public In- 

slrucHon in England and Scotland. 16°. Syracuse. 15 

Hope (A. R.) A Book about Boys. 16°. Bos- 
ton. 75 

• A Book about Dominies. 16°. Boston. 75 

Howe (Julia Ward). Sex and Education. A Re- 
ply to Dr. Clarke's "Sex in Education." 160. Bos 
ton. I 25 

HOYT (John W.) University Progress. 8*. New 
York. 2 oc 

Hurst Q. F.) Life and Literature in the Father- 
land. The result of four years' professional residence 
in Germany, and describes fully German Domestic 
and Social Life ; the Schools, Universities, and Gen 
eral Educational Features of the Country. 8". New 
York. 2 25 

INFANTRY Tactics for Schools. N. Y 75 

JEAN PAUL. Levana; or, the Doctrine of Edu- 
cation. Boston. 2 00 

Jewell (F. S.) School Government. A Practical 
Treatise presenting a Thorough Discussion of its 
Facts, Principles, and their Applications ; with Crit- 
iques upon Current Theories of Punishment, and 
Schemes of Administration. 12*. New York. I 50 

Jex-Blake (Sophia). A Visit to some American 
Schools and Colleges. S°. London. i 75 

JOHONNOT Q.) Our School-houses. Containing, 
(i) An Exposition of the Faults of School-houses, (2) 
An analysis of the Needs of Modern Schools, (3) 
About fifty Plans, (4) A simple system of Ventilation, 

(5) Admission of Light and other Sanitary Conditions, 

(6) Arrangement of Grounds, etc., (7) School Furni- 
ture, (8) Apparatus, (9) System for grading Country 
Schools, (10) Conduct and Management of Schools. 
Illustrated. 8<*. Syracuse. 2 00 

Jolly (S.) Harmony of Education. 12°. Lond. 80 

Thoughts on Vocation and Progression of 

the Teacher. I2». London. 60 



KAY (J.) The Social Condition and Education 
of the People in England. 12". New York. i 50 

Kennedy (H. A.) The Heart and the Mind. 
True Words on Training and Teaching. 12°. Lon- 
don. 75 

Kennedy Q.) Philosophy of School DiscipHne. 
160. Syracuse. 25 

Kiddle (H.), Harrison (T.), and Calkins (N. A.) 
How to Teach. A Manual of Methods for a Grade 
Course of Instruction ; embracing the Subjects usuall 
pursued in Primary, Intermediate, Grammar, an 
High Schools ; also suggestions relative to Discipline 
and School Management. For the use of Teachers. 
1 20. New York. i 25 

Kingsley (Chas.) Health and Education. • 12°. 
New York. i 75 

Kriege (Matilda H.) Friederich Froebel. A Bi- 
ographical Sketch. 12°. New York. 50 

Krusi (H.) Pestalozzi : His Life, Work and In- 
fluence. 8", Cincinnati. 2 25 

LANCASTER Qoseph). Improvements in Edu- 
cation, as it respects the Industrial Classes of the 
Community ; containing, among other important par- 
ticulars, an account of the Institution for the Educa- 
tion of One Thousand Poor Children, Borough Road, 
Southwark ; and of the New System of Education on 
which it is conducted. 8". London, 1805. 2 00 

Latham (Wm. H.) First Lessons for Deaf Mutes. 
163. Cincinnati. 30 

Laurie (S. S.) Primary Instruction in relation to 
Education. 12°. London. I 50 

Leighton (R. F.) Harvard Examination Papers, 
collected and arranged. 12°. Boston. i 56 

Leitch (James). Practical Educationists and their 
Systems of Teaching. 120. Glasgow. 2 40 

Lessing (G. E.) The Education of the Human 
Race. Translated by F. W. Robertson. 180. Lon- 
don. , I 00 

Lessons on Objects, as given to Children be- 
tween the Ages of Six and Eight, in a Pestalozzian 



School at Cheam, Surry. From the twenty-second 
London edition. 12". San Francisco. i 75 

Le Vaux (G. V.) The Science and Art of Teach- 
ing. 12°. Toronto. I 25 

Library of Education. Selected from the best 
writers of all countries. Vol. I : Some Thoughts 
concerning Education, by John Locke. Vol. 2 : Soiije 
Thoughts concerning Education, by John Locke ; part 
2, and a Treatise on Education, by John Milton. 
Vol. 3 : The Study of Physiology in Schools, by Hor- 
ace Mann. Vol. 4: Scottish University Addresses, 
by John S. Mill, James A. Froude, and Thos. Car- 
lyle. Vol. 5 : The Bible in the Public Schools, from 
the press, etc. Vol. 6: The same, part 2. 18°. Pa- 
per. Syracuse. Each, 25 

LiLLiENTHAL (M. E.) and Allyn (Robt.) Things 
Taught : Systematic Instruction in Composition and 
Object Lessons. 160. Cincinnati. 25 

LOOMIS (L. C.) Mental and Social Culture, for 
Teachers, Schools, and Families. In Fourteen Chap- 
ters. Adapted for use as a reading book. 12°. New 
York. 75 

Lord Qohn). Life of Emma Willard. 12". New 
York. 2 GO 

Lowe (R.) Primary and Classical Education. 
An Address. 80. Paper. Edinburgh. 50 

MACBRAIR (R. M.) Chapters on National Edu- 
cation. 8°. London. 50 

Maclaren (Archibald). A System of Physical 
Education, Theoretical and Practical. With illustra- 
tions. 16°. Oxford. 2 25 

Mandeville (Henry). Elements of Reading and 
Oratory. 80. New York. i 50 

Mann (Horace). Annual Reports on Education 
from 1839 to 1848. Crown 8". 770 pages. Cloth. 
Boston. 3 00 

Lectures and Annual Reports on Education. 

Crown 80. 584 pages. Cloth. Boston. 3 00 

Thoughts selected from the Writings of 



Horace Mann. 160. 240 pages. Cloth. Bost. I 25 



Mann (Mrs. Horace). The Life of Horace ]\Iann. 
Crown 8*. Boston. 3 00 

■ Education by Work, according to Froebel's 

Method. Translated from Bertha Von Marenholz- 
Bulow. 12°. Camden. I 00 

Mansfield (E. D.) American Education : Its 
Principles and Elements. Dedicated to the Teachers 
of the United States. 12". New York. i 50 

Markby (Rev. Thos.) Practical Essays on Edu- 
cation. 12°. London. 2 00 

Martineau (Harriet). Household Education. 
16"^. Boston. I 25 

Mathias (G. H. D.) a Tutor's Counsel to his 
Pupils. 12°. Philadelphia. I 00 

Maudsley (H.) Sex in Mind and Education. 
16°. New York. 25 

Maurice (F. D.) Representation and Education 
of the People. Chapters from English History. 
Crown 8**. Paper. London. 75 

Learning and Working. Six Chapters on 

the Foundation of Colleges for Working Men. 80. 
London. 2 50 

Mayhew (Ira). Universal Education : Its Means 
and Ends. 12°. New York. I 75 

Mayo (Miss and Dr.) Practical Remarks on In- 
fant Education. 120. London. 50 

Mayor (J. B.) Guide to the Choice of Classical 
Books. 12°. London. i 00 

Menet (J.) Practical Hints on Teaching. Con- 
taining Advice as to Organization, Discipline, Instruc- 
tion, and Practical Management. With plans of 
Schools which have been thoroughly Tested, and are 
now being thoroughly Adopted in various Localities. 
120. London. I 25 

Miller (Hugh). My Schools and School-masters. 
1 20. New York. i 50 

More (Hannah). Strictures on the Modem System 
of Female Education ; with a View of the Principles 
and Conduct prevalent among Women of Rank and 
Fortune. 2 vols. 12°. London, 1799. 2 25 



MORLEY (J.) Struggle for National Education. 8*. 

London. I 20 

Morse (E. S.) First Book of Zoology. 12°. New 

York. I 25 

MuLLER (M.) Public School Education. 12^ 

Boston. I 50 

NASH (Simeon). Crime and the Family. 12"*. 

Cincinnati. i 25 

National Educational Association. Pro- 
ceedings and addresses for 1872, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. 8*. 
Cloth. Each, 2 00 

Newman (Dr. John Henry). Idea of a University ; 
considered in Nine Discourses, Occasional Lectures, 
and Essays. Crown 8°. London. 2 80 

New York City. An Account of the Free School 
Society of New York. 8°. 1 8 14. Very rare. 5 00 

Public Education in its History, Condition 

and Statistics. An Official Report to the Board of 
Education, by Thomas Boese, Clerk of the Board. 
8". New York. 3 00 

History of the Public School Society of, with 



Portraits of the Presidents of the Society, by Wm. 
Oland Bourne, A.M. 80. New York. 600 

New York State. See Randall (S. S.), Regents' 
Questions. Regents' Reports. 

Natural History. This magnificent work, 

which gave to the world the nomenclature now every- 
where adopted, is now rare. It consists of 22 vols. 
Zoology, 5 vols., (Mammals I, Reptiles and Fishes 2, 
Birds I, Molluscs i). Botany, 2 vols. Minej'alogy, 
I vol. Geology, 4 vols. Agriculture, 5 vols., and 
Palccontology, 5 vols. The set contains several thou- 
sand plates, nearly half of them colored by hand, and 
cost the State more than $500,000. We have several 
sets on hand, at from $60 to $100, and single volumes 
at from $2.00 to $15.00. 

Northam (H. C.) Civil Government for Common 
Schools. Prepared as a Manual for Pubhc Instruction 
in the State of New York. To which is appended the 
Constitution of the State of New York, as recently 
amended. 16". Syracuse. 75 



NORTHEND (C.) The Teachers' Assistant; or. 
Hints and Methods in School Discipline and Instruc 
tion ; being a Series of Familiar Letters to one enter- 
ing upon the Teacher's Work. 12°. New York, i 50 

The Teacher and the Parent : A Treatise 

upon Common School Education ; containing Practical 
Suggestions to Teachers and Parents. 120. New 
York. I 50 

Northrop (B. G.) Education Abroad, and other 
Papers. 8". New York. i 50 

)GDEN Q.) The Science of Education and Art 
of Teaching. 12°. Cincinnati. i $0' 

Olin (St.) College Life : Its Theory and Practice. 
120. New York. I 50 

Oppler (A.) Three Lectures on Education, de- 
livered before the College of Preceptors. Revised 
and enlarged. 120. London. i 40 

Orcutt (Hiram). Home and School Training. 
12°. Boston. I 00 

Teachers' Manual. I2<'. Boston. i 00 

Orton (J.) The Liberal Education of Women. 
The Demand and the Method. I2<'. New York, i 50 

Our Children : How to Rear and Train Them. 
A Manual for Parents in the Physical, Educational, 
Religious, and Moral Training of their Children. I2». 
London. I 50 

PAGE (D. P.) Theory and Practice of Teaching. 
120. New York. i 50 

Payne Q.) Pestalozzi : The Influence of his Prin- 
ciples and Practice on Elementary Education. 8". 
Paper. London. 25 

■ — • Froebel and the Kindergarten System. 12"*. 

Paper. New York. 15 

The Science and Art of Education. 8°. 



New York. 50 

The True Foundation of Science Teaching. 



80. Paper. London. 25 

A Visit to German Schools. Notes of a 



Professional Tour to inspect some of the Kindergarten 
Primary Schools, Public Girls' Schools, and Schools 



for Technical Instruction, in Hamburg, Berlin. Dres- 
den, Weimar, Gotha, and Eisenach, in the Autumn of 
1874, with critical Discussions of the General Princi- 
ples and Practice of Kindergarten and other Schemes 
of Elementary Education. 12°. London. i 80 

Payne (Wm. H.) Chapters on School Supervision. 
A Practical Treatise on Superintendence, Grading, 
Arranging Courses of Study, etc. 12°. Cin. i 25 

pEABODY (EHzabeth P.) Record of Mr. Alcott's 
School, exemplifying the Principles and Methods of 
Moral Culture. 16°. Boston. i 50 

Peets (H. p.) Course of Instruction for the Deaf 
and Dumb. N. Y. Part I, net, . 75 ; Part 3, net, I 00 

Language Lessons. 12°. N. Y. Net, i 25 

Pestalozzi (H.) and His Plan of Education ; be- 
ing an Account of His Life and Writings. Portrait. 
8°. London, 1 83 1. 3 oc 

Letters on Early Education. With Me- 
moir. 12°. London, 1850. 75 

See Krusi, Payne, Cullen, Barnard, Quick, 

and Lessons on Objects. 

Phelps (Mrs. L.) The Student; or, Fireside 
Friend. With an Appendix on Moral and Religious 
Education. I2<>. New York. I 50 

DiscipHne of Life. 12°. New York, i 75 

The Educator ; or, Hours with my Pupils. 

1 20. New York. i 50 

Phelps (W. F.) The Teacher's Hand-book for 
the Institute and Class-room. 12". New York, i 50 

"Philobiblius." History and Progress of Edu- 
cation, from the Earliest Times to the Present. In- 
tended as a Manual for Teachers and Students. With 
an Introduction by H. Barnard. 12°. N. Y. I 50 

Porter (Noah). Addresses at the Inauguration 
of, as President of Yale College, Wednesday, Octo- 
ber II, 1871. 8". New York. i 00 

■ Books and Reading ; or, What Books shall 

I Read, and how shall I Read Them. 12°, New 
York. 2 CO 

The American Colleges and the American 



Public. 12°. New Haven. i 150 



Potter (Alonzo) and Emerson (G. B.) The 
School and the School-master. A Manual for the use 
of Teachers, Employers, Trustees, Inspectors, etc. 
120. New York. i 50 

Public Schools (The). Winchester, Westmin- 
ster, Shrewsbury, Harrow, Rugby. Notes of their 
History and Traditions. By the author of *' Etoma." 
I2<>. Edinburgh. 3 00 

PULLEN (P. H.) The Mother's Book ; or. Gram- 
mar of English Parsing; exemplifying Pestalozzi's 
Plan of Awakening the Understanding of Children 
in Language, Drawing, Geometry, Geography, and 

' Numbers. Second edition. 120. Lond., 1822. i 25 

QUAIN (R.) On some Defects in General Educa- 
tion. Crown 8". London. I 25 

Quick (Robert Hebert). Essays on Educational 
Reformers. 12''. Cincinnati. 2 00 

RANDALL (S. S.) A History of the Common 
School System of the State of New York, from its 
Origin, in 1795, to 1871. Including the various City 
and other Special Organizations, and the Religious 
Controversies of 1821, 1832, and 1840. 8'*. New 
York. 3 GO 

History of the State of New York, for the 

use of Common Schools, Academies, Normal and 
High Schools, and other Seminaries of Instruction. 
12**. Syracuse.. i 50 

First Principles of Popular Education and 



Popular Instruction. 12°. New York. i 50 

Raub (A. N.) Plain Educational Talks with 
Teachers and Parents. I2<'. Philadelphia. i 50 

Regents' Questions (The). 1866101876. Be- 
ing the Questions for the Preliminary Examinations 
for admission to the University of the State of New 
York, prepared by the Regents of the University. 
Compiled by D. J. Pratt. 18°. Syracuse. i 00 

Regents' Reports on the Academies and Colleges 
of New York together with the Proceedings and ad- 
dresses at the Annual Convocations. By far the most 
complete and detailed educatioral reports ever pub- 



lished. 1837-1876. S°. Albany. Price variable 
according to scarcity of volumes. 

Regents' Reports on the New York Museum of 
Natural History, 1848-1874, 27 vols, published, fully 
illustrated, forming an appendix to the Natural His- 
tory of the State of New York. Scarce. Price vari- 
able according to size and variety of the volumes. 
We have complete sets and extra volumes always on 
hand. 

Rhode Island History of Public Education, 1636 
to 1876, Thos. B. Stockwell. 8°. Providence. 3 00 

Richter (Jean Paul Friedrich). Levana ; or, The 
Doctrine of Education. Translated from the German. 
12°. Boston. 2 00 

RiGG Q. H.) National Education in its Social 
Condition and Aspects, and Public Elementary School 
Education, English and Foreign. I2<'. London. 4 50 

RiOFREY (A. M. B.) Treatise on Physical Educa- 
tion ; specially adapted to young Ladies. 8*^. Lon- 
don, 1838. 2 50 

ROBBINS (Eliza). The Guide to Knowledge ; being 

a Collection of Useful and Familiar Questions and 

Answers on E very-day Subjects. 18". N. Y. i go 

Roberts (C. R.) National Education ; with Hints 
to People and Rulers. 8°. London. 2 40 

Roe (Martha). A Work in Number, for Junior 
Classes. 16°. Syracuse. 50 

Rogers (Edward). A Guide Book for Parents, 
Teachers, and Scholars, designed as a System of Ethics 
for Common Schools. 16°. Utica, 1849. I 00 

Rogers (J. E. T.) Education in Oxford : Its 
Method ; its Aids, and its Rewards. S°. Lond. 2 40 

RONNEGER (Madame). On Certain Moral and 
Esthetic Deficiencies in the Education of the Present 
Day. Lecture delivered at the College of Preceptors, 
April 15, 1874. London. 20 

Root (N. W. Taylor). School Amusements; or. 
How to make the School Interesting, and hints upon 
the General Management of the School-room. With 
Engravings, 120. New York. i 50 



ROSENKRANZ (Carl). The Science of Education ; 
or, Pedagogics as a System. Translated from the 
German by Anna Brackett. 8". Sv. Louis. 

Paper, $i.oo; cloth I 50 

Ross (Mary Ann). How to Train Young Eyes 
and Ears ; being a Manual of Objects-lessons for 
Parents and Teachers. London. 75 

Roth (M.) Gymnastic Exercises, according to 
Lmg's System, for the due Development and Strength- 
ening of the Human Body. New York. 50 

Russell Q.) Normal Training. 12°. N. Y. i 25 

SANDS (Nathaniel). The Philosophy of Teaching. 
The Teacher, the Pupil, the School. 8°. N. Y. i 00 

Schmidt (H. L) Education. Part i, History of 
Education, Ancient and Modern; Part 2, A Plan of 
Culture and Instruction. i8<>. New York. 75 

SCOONES (W. B.) The Public Schools and the 
Public Service. S°. London. ' 50 

ScoTT (W. R.) The Deaf and Dumb: Their 
Education and Social Position. S^. London. 3 00 

Sears (Barnas). Ciceronian : or, the Prussian 
Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin Lan- 
guage. 18°. Boston. 65 

Senior (N. W.) Suggestions on Popular Educa- 
tion. 8°. Half morocco. London. 3 25 

Sewell (E. M.) Principles of Education, drawn 
from Nature and Revelation, and applied to Female 
Education in the Upper Classes. 12". N. Y. 2 00 

Sheldon (E, A.) Lessons on Objects. Gradu- 
ated series. Designed for Children between the Ages 
of Six and Fourteen Years. Containing also Inform- 
ation on Common Objects. 12°. New York. i 75 
A Manual of Elementary Instruction. Con- 
taining a Graduated Course of Object Lessons for 
Training the Senses and Developing the Faculties of 
Children. 12°. New York. i 75 

Shirreff (Emily). Intellectual Education, and its 
Influence on the Character and Happiness of Women. 
Crown 8°. London. 2 40 

SiZER (Nelson). What to Do and Why, and how 



to Educate each Man for his Proper Work. Describ- 
ing Seventy-five Trades and Professions, and the Tal- 
ents and Temperaments required for Each. 12". 
New York. I 75 

Smart (J. H.) The Indiana Schools and the Men 
who have Worked in Them. 12". Cincinnati, i 00 

A Manual of Free Gymnastic and Dumb 

Bell Exercises. 16°. Cincinnati. 20 

Spencer (Herbert). Education, Intellectual, Mor- 
al, and Physical. 12°. New York. I 25 

Spurzheim Q. G.) Education : Its Elementary- 
Principles, founded on the Study of the Nature of 
Man. With an Appendix, containing the Tempera- 
ments and a Brief Analysis of the Faculties. 12". 
New York. I 25 

The Same. 8°. London, 1828. 2 00 

Staunton (Howard). The Great Schools of En- 
gland, An Account of the Foundations, Endow- 
ments, and Discipline of the Chief Seminaries of 
Learning in England. Crown 8°. London. 2 50 

Steffens (Heinrich). German University Life. 
The Story of My Career as Student and Professor. 
With Personal Reminiscences of Goethe, Schiller, 
Schelling, and others. Translated by W. L. Gage. 
120. Philadelphia. I 25 

Stetson (C. B.) Technical Education : What it 
is, and what American Public Schools should Teach. 
An Essay based on the Examination of the Methods 
and Results of Technical Education in Europe, as 
shown by Official Reports. 16". Boston. I 25 

Stone Q.) The Teacher's Examiner. 12°. New 
York. I 25 

Stow (David). The Life and Educational Princi- 
ples of. Founder of the Training System of Educa- 
tion. By the Rev. Wm. Eraser. With Portrait. 
Crown 8°. London. 2 00 

The Training System. Moral Training in 

School and Normal Seminary, or College. 12°. Lon- 
don, 1858. Out of Print. 

Stowell (T. B.) Syllabus of Lectures in Physi- 



ology given at the State Normal and Training School 
at Cortland. 8*^. Boards. Syracuse. 50 

Sweet (J.) Questions for Examinations. An Aid 
to Candidates for Certificates, and a Handbook for 
Examinations and Teachers. 12°. New York I 00 

Syntax (Dr.) Three Tours of ; in search of (i) 
The Picturesque, (2) Consolation, (3) A Wife. Col- 
ored Illustrations. 12°. London. 3 00 

Sypher Q. R.) The Art of Teaching School. 
I2<>. Philadelphia. I 50 

TATE (Thos.) The Philosophy of Education. 12^ 
London. 2 60 

Taylor (L) Home Education. 8°. Lond. 2 00 

Taylor (O. M.) History of Annapolis and the 
United States Naval Academy. 12°. Baltimore. I 00 

Taylor (S. H.) Method of Classical Study. 12". 
Boston. I 25 

Taylor (W. B. S.) History of the University of 
Dublin : Its Origin, Progi-ess, and Present Condition. 
Colored illustrations. Thick 8^. London. Cloth. 
Uncut. 2 50 

Ten Brook (Andrew). American State Univer- 
sities : Their Origin and Progress. A History of 
Congressional University Land Grants. A Particular 
Account of the Rise and Development of the Univer- 
sity of Michigan, and Hints toward the Future of the 
American University System. S°. Cincinnati. 3 50 

Testas (M. F.) Virtues and Faults of Childhood. 
From the French by Susan E. Harris. 120. Bos- 
ton. I 25 

Thayer's Lectures to a Young Teacher. 

16°. New York. 50 

Thomas (W. C.) Symmetrical Education; or, 
The Importance of Just Proportion in Mind and Body. 
Crown 8°. London. I 00 

Thompson (D'Arcy W.) Day Dreams of a School- 
master. 12'^. London. 2 50 

— ^ — Wayside Thoughts on Education. I2<*. 
Edinburgh. 2 40 

Thomson (E.) Educational Essays. 12". New 
York. I SO 



Thornley (M.) True End of Education Devel- 
oped. 120. Edinburgh. I 25 

Thring (E.) Education and School. 12°. Lon- 
don. I 75 

Times (J.) School Days of Eminent Men. 120. 
Cloth. New York. i 5c 

Todd (J.) The Student's Manual. Designed by 
Specific Directions, to aid in Forming and Strengthen- 
ing the Intellectual and Moral Character, and Habits 
of the Student. 12°. Northampton. i 75 

TODHUNTER (I.) The Conflict of Studies, and 
other Subjects connected with Education. 8°. Lon- 
don. 3 50 

Twining (T.) Technical Training : Being a Sug- 
gestive Sketch of a National System of Industrial In- 
struction, founded on a General Diffusion of Practical 
Science among the People. 8°. London. 4 50 

WALSH (McN.) The Lawyer in the School- 
room ; comprising the Laws of all the States on Im- 
portant Educational Subjects. Carefully compiled, 
arranged, cited, and explained. In nine chapters. 
12°. New York. I 00 

Warren (S. E.) Notes on Polytechnic or Scien- 
tific Schools in the United States : Their Nature, 
Position, Aims, and Wants. 8°. Paper. N. Y. 40 

Watson's (J. M.) Handbook of Gymnastics. 
With illustrations and music to accompany the exer- 
cises. 80. New York. 2 00 

Manual of Calisthenics. A Complete Course 

of Physical Exercises, without Apparaus. 16°. New- 
York. I 25 

Welch (A. S.) Object Lessons. Prepared for 
Teachers of Primary Schools and Primary Classes. 
160. New York. i 00 

Welch (F. G.) Moral, Intellectual, and Physical 
Culture; or, The Philosophy of True Living. 120. 
New York. 2 00 

W'ELLS (W. H.) A Graded Course of Instruction 
for Public Schools. With Copious Px-actical Direc- 
tions to Teachers, and Observations on Primary 



Schools, School Discipline, School Records, etc. 120. 
New York. i 25 

Western Literary Institute and College of Pro- 
fessional Teachers. Transactions of Fourth Annual 
Meeting. 8°. Cincinnati, 1835, 2 00 

Whewell (Wm.) Of a Liberal Education in Gen- 
eral, and with Particular Reference to the Leading 
Studies of the University of Cambridge. 8<*. Boards. 
London. 2 00 

On the Principles of Eng-lish University 

Education. 120. London, 1838. i 25 

Influence of the History of Science upon In- 



tellectual Education. 12°. Paper. Boston. 40 

White (R. G.) Life and Genius of Shakspere. 
120. Boston. 2 50 

Whitcomb (Ida P.) A Summary of History. 
I2<'. New York. 50 

WiCKERSHAM (]. P.) Methods of Instruction ; or. 
That Part of the Philosophy of Education, which 
Treats of the Nature of the Several Branches of 
Knowledge, and the Method of Teaching Them. 120. 
Philadelphia. I 75 

School Economy. A Treatise on the Prep- 
aration, Organization, Employments, Government, and 
Authorities of Schools. 12°. Philadelphia. i 50 

WiLLARD (Emma). The Life of, by John Lord. 
12°. New York. 2 00 

WiLLSON (M.) Manual of Information and Sug- 
gestions for Object Lessons, in a Course of Element- 
ary Instruction. Adapted to the use of the School, 
and Family Charts, and other aids in Teaching. 12°. 
New York. i 5^ 

WiLLiN (J.) The Education of the People ; with 
J. P. Nichols's Preliminary Dissertation. 12*^. Glas- 
gow. I 5*^ 

Wordsworth (C.) Social Life at the English 
Universities in the Eighteenth Century. 12°. Lon- 
don. 6 00 

Work's New Education according to Froebel's 
Method, by Bertha Von Marenholtz-Bulow. Trans. 



lated by Mrs. Horace Mann, wuh tlie assistance of 
Prof. Leopold Noa. 16°. 1876. 50 

YONGE (Miss). Landmarks of Ancient History. 
12''. New York. i 00 

Landmarks of Mediasval History. 12*'. New- 
York. I 25 
Landmarks of Modern History. 1 2". New 



York. I 50 
YOUMANS (E. L.) The Culture Demanded by 
Modern Life : A Series of Addresses and Arguments 
on the Claims of Scientific Education. Edited with 
an Introduction on Mental Discipline in Education. 
12°. New York. 2 00 
YoUMANS (Eliza A.) First Book of Botany. De- 
signed to Cultivate the Observing Powers of Children. 
12". New York. I 25 
Second Book of Botany. I2">. N. Y. i 50 

SCHOOL REPORTS 

Of all leading States and Cities for many years past 
on hand, for sale or exchange. 

KINDERGARTEN. 

BORSCHITZKY (J. F.) Kindergarten Lieder, with 
German and English words. Containing the 32 Songs 
in Ronge's Guide. Arranged with an accompaniment 
of a second voice and .piano-forte guidance. New 
York. 3 50 

Thirty-two Songs from Ronge's Kinder- 
garten Guide, with words in English and German. 
New York. i 75 
New Kindergarten Songs. New York. 50 



CURRIE Qames). The Principles and Practice of 
Early and Infant School Education, with an Appendix 
of Infant School Hymns and Songs with appropriate 
Melodies. 12°. London. 2 00 

DouAi (Adolt). The Kindergarten. A Manual 
for the Introduction of Froebel's System of Primary 
Education into Public Schools, and for the Use of 
Mothers and Private Teachers. With 16 plates. 
Fourth edition. 120. New York. i 00 



Froebel (F.) The Founder of the Khidergarten 
System. A Biographical Sketch by Matilda H. Kriege, 
with portrait. Cloth. New York. 50 

Reminiscences, by B. Von Marenholz-Bu- 

low. 12°. Boston. I 50 

The Mother's Book of Song. Two-part 



Songs for little Singers, on the Kindergarten System. 
The music composed by Lady Baker ; edited by G. A. 
Macfarran. 160, New York. 75 

Froebel (Karl). Elements of Designing on the 
Developing System, for Elementary School Classes, 
and for Families. 4 parts. Leipsic. 

Each, paper, $0.35; cloth 50 

Hailman (W. N.) Kindergarten Culture in the 
Family and Kindergarten. A Complete Sketch of 
Froebel's System of Early Education, adapted to 
American Institutions. For the use of Mothers and 
Teachers. Illustrated. 16". Cincinnati. 75 

Hoffmann (H.) Kindergarten Toys, and how to 
use Them. A Practical Explanation of the First Six 
Gifts of Froebel's Kindergarten. Illustrated. Paper. 
New York. 20 

Hyde (Anna M.) A Ladder to Learning for Little 
Climbers. Showing how Play and Study may be 
Combined. Prepared for the Use of Kindergartens, 
Infants, Primary, and Parish Schools. 18°. Phila- 
delphia. 50 

Kraus-Boelte (Maria) and John Kraus. The 
Kindergarten Guide. An Illustrated Hand-book, de- 
signed for the Self-instruction of Kindergartners, 
Mothers, and Nurses. 8°. New York. No. I, ist 
and 2d Gifts, $0.65; II, 3d-6th, $1.00; III, 7th 
Gift, 80 

Kriege (A. L.) Rhymes and Tales for the Kin- 
dergarten and Nursery. Collected and revised. I2*». 
New York. Paper, $0. 50 ; cloth I GO 

Kriege (Matilda H.) The Child : Its Nature and 
Relations. An Elucidation of Froebel's Principles of 
Education. Second edition. 12°. New York, i 00 

Little (Ella). Kindergarten Spelling-book. Part 
first. 16°. Boston. 2$ 



Mann (Mrs. H.) and Peabody (E. O.) Moral 
Culture of Infancy and Kindergarten Guide, with 
music for the Plays. 12°. New York. I 25 

No A (Henrietta). Plays for the Kindergarten; 
music by C. J. Richter. (The Text of the 19 Plays is 
in both German and Enghsh.) 18°. Paper. New 
York. 30 

Payne Qoseph). Froebel and the Kindergarten 
System of Elementary Education. Paper. N. Y. 15 

Peabody (Elizabeth P.) Lectures on the Nursery 
and Kindergartner. No. I. Education of the Kin- 
dergartner. 12°. Paper. Pittsburg. 25 

Ronge (Johannes and Bertha). A Practical Guide 
to the English Kindergarten, for the use of Mothers, 
Governesses, and Infant Teachers ; being an Exposi- 
tion of Froebel's System of Infant Training, accompa- 
nied with a great variety of Instructive and Amusing 
Games, and Industrial and Gymnastic Exercises. 
With numerous Songs set to Music, and arranged for 
the Exercises. With 71 lithographic plates. New 
York. 2 10 

WiEBE (Ed.) The Paradise of Childhood. A 
Manual for Self-instruction in Friedrich Froebel's Ed- 
ucational Principles, and a Practical Guide to Kinder- 
gartners. With 74 plates of Illustrations. In four 
parts. 4°. Springfield, Mass. Paper, $2.50; cl. 3 00 

See also Works on "Objects." 

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE STATE OF 
NEW YORK. 

This magnificent work was issued by this State at an 
expense exceeding $500,000, and gave to the world the 
accepted nomenclature of geological formations. Twen- 
ty-two volumes have been issued : the first in 1842, the 
last in 1870. Complete sets are now scarce and valuable, 
but we have for several years purchased all copies offered 
for sale, and have now on hand several complete sets, 
and a great many single volumes. The prices of the 
different volumes vary with their scarcity and condition. 
The Mineralogy we can furnish at $3.00. The Orni- 



thology is scarce at $15.00. Complete sets are worth 
from $80.00 to $120.00, according to the condition an^ 
coloring of the plates. We shall be glad to correspond 
with persons desiring either to buy or to sell. 

Full sets have been furnished to Principal Veeder, of 
Ives Seminary, Antwerp ; Principal Dolph, of Port 
Jervis High School; J. Dorman Steele, Ph.D., of El- 
mira, and several others, and we have filled incomplete 
sets in every part of the State. 

SUBJECTS. 

Zoology. — Vol. i. Historical introduction to the 
Series, by Hon. William H. Seward, and Zoology of 
New York, or The New York Fauna. Mammalia. 
Text and 33 full page Plates. By James E. De Kay. 
Issued in 1842. — Vol. 2. Birds (Ornithology). Text 
and 308 Colored Figures. By James E De Kay. 1844. 
— Vol. 3. Reptiles, Fishes and Amphibia. Text. By 
James E. De Kay. 1842. — Vol. 4. Reptiles, Fishes 
and Amphibia. 102 full page Plates. By James E. De 
Kay. 1842. — Vol. 5. Mollusca and Crustacea. Text 
with 53 full page Colored Rlates. By James E. De Kay. 
1843 and 1844. 

Botany. — Vol. 6. Flora of the State of New York. 
Text and 72 full page Plates. By John Torrey, M.D., 
F.L.S. 1843. —Vol. 7. Flora of the State of New 
York. Text and 89 full page Plates. By John Torrey, 
M.D., F.L.S. 1843. 

Mineralogy. — Vol. 8. Mineralogy of New York 
(in one vol.) By Lewis C. Beck, M.D., Prof, of Chem- 
istry and Natural History. Profuse Illustrations and 8 
full page Plates. 1842. 

Geology. — Vol. 9. Geology of New York, compris- 
ing the Geology of Washington, Saratoga, Schenectady, 
Schoharie and Delaware counties, and all territory with- 
in the State south and east of these counties, with 9 fold- 
ed and 37 full page Plates, colored. By WiUiam W. 
Mather, Prof of Nat. Hist. 1843.— Vol. 10. Second 
Geological District, embracing St. Lawrence, Franklin, 
Clinton, Essex, Warren, Hamilton and Jefferson coun- 
ties, with 10 folded and 7 full page maps, colored. By 
Ebenezer Emmons, Prof, of Nat. Hist. 1842.— Vol. 



II. Third Geological District, embracing Montgom* 
ery, Fulton, Otsego, Herkimer, Oneida, Lewis, Oswe- 
go, Madison, Onondaga, Cayuga, Cortland, Chenango, 
Broome, Tioga and the eastern half of Tompkins coun- 
ties, with many illustrations. By Lardner Vanuxem. 
1842. — Vol. 12. Fourth Geological District, embracing 
Wayne, IMonroe, Orleans, Niagara, Seneca, Ontario, 
Yates, Livingston, Genesee, Erie, Chemung, Steuben, 
Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua and the western part 
of Tompkins counties, with 15 folded Plates, colored, 
■jnd 80 full page Plates. By James Hall. 1843. 

Agriculture. — Vol. 13. Agriculture of New York, 
slassification, etc., of Soils and Rocks. 8 folded, 13 full 
page Plates, colored. By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D. 
1846. — Vol. 14. Agriculture of New York, analysis of 
Soils, Plants, Cereals, etc. 43 full page Plates, colored. 
By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D. 1849. — Vol. 15. Agri- 
culture of New York, Fruits of the State. Many Illus- 
trations. By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D. 1 85 1. — Vol. 
16. Agriculture of New York, Fruits (vol. Ill on title 
page). 99 full page Colored Plates. By Ebenezer Em- 
mons, M.D. 1851. — Vol. 17. Agriculture of New 
York, Insects injurious to Agriculture. Over 1000 Col- 
ored Figures. By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D. 1854. 

Paleontology. — Vol. 18. Palaeontology of New 
York, Organic remains of the Lower Silurian. 97 full 
page and folded Plates. By James Hall. 1847. — Vol. 

19. Organic remains of the Middle Silurian. 98 full 
page and folded Plates. By James Hall. 1853. — Vol. 

20. Organic remains of the Lower Helderberg Group 
and Oriskany Sandstone. By James Hall. 1859. — 
Vol. 21. 150 full page Plates to the same. By James 
Hall. 1862. — Vol. 22. Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper 
Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups, 
etc. 75 full page Plates. By James Hall. Issued 
1870. 

REGENTS' REPORTS ON THE MUSEUM OF 
NATURAL HISTORY. 
These Reports form Annual Supplements to the Nat- 
ural History of the State of New York, and are even 
more rare and in some cases more valuable than the vol- 



umes of Natural History themselves. We have one 
complete set, except the first two volmnes, and many 
duplicates, including the Report of the Legislative Com- 
mittee upon the history and cost of the Natural History 
of New York. Prices furnished on application. 

Index to the Reports. 

No. Ill, 1850. Catalogue*; of Quadrupeds, Reptiles 
and Amphibians, Minerals and Fossils, Historical and 
Antiquarian Collection. Reports — on Indian Collection, 
by Lewis H. Morgan, with cuts and beautifully colored full 
page plates ; on ancient Remains of Art in Jefferson and 
St. Lawrence counties, by Franklin B. Hough, with 5 
full page illustrations ; on the Mineralogy of New York, 
by Lewis H. Beck, with cuts. References to various 
Essays and Writings on the Natural History of New 
York. Index to the Volumes in the State Cabinet of 
Natural History. Description of New Species of Fos- 
sils from the Trenton Limestone, by James Hall, with 3 
full page and I folded illustrations. Pp. 183. 

No. IV, 1 85 1. Catalogues of Quadrupeds, Birds, 
Reptiles, Amphibians, Insects, Botanical Specimens, 
Minerals and Fossils, with cuts. Historical Collection. 
Ancient Remains, continued from No. Ill, with cuts 
and 5 full page illustrations, etc. Pp. 146. 

No. V, 1852. The usual annual catalogues of addi- 
tions. Description of the means employed by E. Mer- 
riam to remove the rocks of Hurlgate, eta Pp. 66. 
Appendix. Report on the Fabrics, Inventions, Im- 
plements and Utensils of the Iroquois, by Lewis H. 
Morgan, -with many cuts and 20 full page colored illustra- 
tions. Pp. 66. 

No. VI, 1853. The usual annual catalogues. Pp. 35. 

No. VII, 1854. The usual annual catalogues. Com- 
munication from Prof. Geo. H. Cook, on Salt and Salt 
Water. On the Serpents of New York, by Spencer F. 
Baird, with 2 full page plates. Pp. 127. 

No. VIII, 1855. The usual catalogues, with folded 
plate of Trilobite, Also, catalogue of the Fishes of the 
State, by James E. De Kay. Pp. 69. 

No. IX, 1856. The usual catalogues. Pp. 48. 



No. X, 1857. Addresses delivered at the Inaugura 
tion of the State Geological Hall. The usual catalogues, 
with cuts of Fossils. Pp. 190. 

No. XI, 1858. The usual catalogues. Pp. 44. 

No. XII, 1859. Contributions to the Palaeontology 
of New York, 1855-8, by James Hall. The usual cata- 
logues. Pp. III. 

No. XIII, i860. The usual catalogues. Catalogue 
of the Mazatlan Mollusca. Ancient Monuments of 
Western New York, by T. Apoleon Cheney, with map 
and 27 full page plates. Conti-ibutions to Palaeontology, 
1858-9, by James Hall. Pp. 128. 

No. XIV, 1 86 1. The usual catalogues. Guide to 
the Geology of New York, by Ledyard Lincklaen, with 
cuts and 19 full page plates. Contributions, 1859-60, 
by James Hall. Pp. 1 10. 

No. XV, 1862. The usual catalogues. Contributions 
as to the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung 
Groups, by James Hall, with II full page plates. Pp. 
181. 

No. XVI, 1863. The usual catalogues. Radical 
Words of the Mohawk Language, by Rev. James 
Bruyas, S.J. Pp. 123. Appendix D (separate volume). 
Contributions to Palaeontology, 1861-2, by James Hall, 
with cuts and 15 full page illustrations. Pp. 226. 

No. XVII, 1864. The usual catalogues. Prelimi- 
nary List of Plants of Buffalo and its Vicinity, by Geo. 
W. Clinton. Meteorological Observations. Contribu- 
tions to Palaeontology, by James Hall. Pp. 60. 

No. XVIII, 1865. The usual catalogues. Descrip- 
tion of the Wadsworth Gallery of Casts of Fossil Ani- 
mals, by Henry A. Ward, with profuse illustrations. 
Catalogue of Plants found in Oneida county and Vicinity, 
by John A. Paine. Catalogue of Mosses, by Charles 
H. Peck. Facts and Observations touching the Flora 
of the State of New York. Meteorological Observations. 
Table of the Variation of the Needle. Pp. 232. Con- 
tributions to Palaeontology, by James Hall, are indexed, 
but were printed in the Twentieth Report. 

No. XIX, 1866. Special Report on increasing the 
Cabinet of Natural History. The usual catalogues. 



Catalogue of Mosses and Observations on Flora of the 
State continued. Contributions, by James Hall, Pp. 80. 

No. XX, 1867. The usual catalogues. Catalogue of 
Books. Local Climatology. Metorological Observa- 
tions. Local CHmatology, by Prof. W. D. Wilson. 
Observations on the Atrypa, with cuts. Contributions 
to Palaeontology, by James Hall, including the study of 
Graptolites, etc., profusely illustrated, 23 full page illus- 
trations. Pp. 410. 

No. XXI, 1868. The usual catalogues. The Stone 
and Bone Implements of the Arickarees, by Lewis H. 
Morgan, with 6 full page plates. The Mineralogy of 
the Laurentian Limestonesof North America, byT. Sterry 
Hunt. Notes and Observations on the Cohoes Masto- 
don, by James Hall, with 7 folded plates. General In- 
dex to Reports I-XX, exclusive of the Geological and 
Palseontological Papers. Pp. 190. 

No. XXII, 1869. The usual catalogues. Partial list 
of Shells found near Troy, by Truman H. Aldrich. 
Reports on Meteorology and Magnetic Variations. Pp. 

113- 

No. XXIII, 1870. The usual catalogues. Report of 
the Botanist, with 6 full page colored illustrations. En- 
tomological Contributions, by J. A. Lintner, with 2 full 
page illustrations. On Cucullia, by A. Speyer, M.D. 
Notes on Brachiopoda, with 6 full page illustrations, and 
Reply to a Note on a Question of Priority, by James 
Hall. Pp. 252. 

No. XXIV, 1871. The usual catalogues. Report of 
the Botanist, with 4 full page colored plates. Entomo- 
logical Contributions, continued. Ascent of Mt. Sew- 
ard, and its Barometrical Measurement, by Verplanck 
Colvin, with one full page illustration. Description of - 
Fossils from Louisville, Ky., and Remarks on Peculiar 
Impressions in Sandstone of the Chemung Group, by 
James Hall and R. P. Whitfield. Descriptions of Cri- 
noidea, and of new Fossils from Cincinnati, by Jameri 
Hall, with 4 full page plates. Pp. 232. 

No. XXV, 1872. The usual catalogues. Report of 
the Botanist, with two full page illustrations. Pp. 123. 

No. XXVI, 1873. The usual catalogues. List of 



Iron Ores in the Economic Collection. Record of Bor« 
ings of Gardner Oil Well. Report of the Botanist. 
Fossils in the Lower Helderberg Group, by James Hall, 
Entomological Contributions, No. 3, with cuts. Pp. 192. 
No. XXVII, 1874. The usual catalogues. List of 
Land and Fresh Water Shells, by T. H. Aldrich. Re- 

Sort of the Botanist, with 2 full page illustrations. The 
fiagara and Lower Helderberg Groups, and New Spe- 
cies of Gomatitidae, by James Hall, with 5 full page il- 
lustrations. Entomological Contributions, No. 4. Pp. 
148. 



THE 




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